Articles listed under letter "L"

[1907 edition] 

  
LAB`ARUM, the standard, surmounted by the monogram of Christ, which
was borne before the Emperor Constantine after his conversion to
Christianity, and in symbol of the vision of the cross in the sky which
led to it. It was a lance with a cross-bar at its extremity and a crown
on top, and the monogram consisted of the Greek letter for Ch and R.


LABE, LOUISE, poetess, surnamed "La belle Cordiere" as the wife of a
rope-maker, born in Lyons; wrote in prose "Dialogue d'Amour et de Folie,"
and elegies and sonnets, with "a singular approach to the ring of
Shakespeare's" (1526-1566).



LABICHE, EUGENE, a French dramatist, born at Paris; his dramas give
evidence of a genius of inexhaustible fertility of invention, wit, and
humour; his best-known play "Le Voyage de M. Perrichon," 1860
(1815-1888).


LABLACHE, a celebrated operatic deep bass singer, born in Naples, of
French origin; he created quite a _furore_ wherever he went; was teacher
of singing to Queen Victoria (1794-1858).


LABOULAYE, RENE DE, a French jurist, born in Paris; was a Moderate
in politics; wrote on French law, and was the author of some tales of a
humorous turn, such as "Paris in America" (1811-1883).


LABOURDONNAIS, MARE DE, French naval officer, born at St. Malo,
Governor of the Isle of France; distinguished himself against the English
in India; was accused of dishonourable conduct, and committed to the
Bastille, but after a time found guiltless and liberated (1699-1753).


LABRADOR (6), the great peninsula in the E. of Canada, washed by
Hudson's Bay, the Greenland Sea, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence; is a high
tableland, with many lakes and rivers, and forests of birch and fir. The
climate is much too severe for agriculture. Summer is very short, and
plagued with mosquitoes. The rivers abound in salmon; the fox, marten,
otter, and other animals are trapped for their fur; iron and labradorite
are plentiful. The population is largely Eskimo, christianised by the
Moravians. The name Labrador specially belongs to the region along the
eastern coast, between Capes St. Louis and Chudleigh, presenting a barren
front to the sea, precipitous, much indented, and fringed with rocky
islands. This region is governed by Newfoundland; its chief industry is
cod and herring fishing.


LA BRUYERE, JEAN DE, a celebrated French moralist, born at Paris;
was tutor to the Duke of Bourbon, the grandson of the great Conde, and
spent a great part of his life in Paris in connection with the Conde
family; his most celebrated work is "Les Caracteres de Theophrastus"
(1687), which abounds in wise maxims and reflections on life, but gave
offence to contemporaries by the personal satires in it under disguised
names; he ranks high as a writer no less than as a moralist; his style is
"a model of ease, grace, and fluency, without weakness in his characters;
a book," adds Professor Saintsbury, "most interesting to read, and
especially to Englishmen" (1645-1696).


LABUAN (6), a small island, distant 6 m. from the W. coast of North
Borneo, ceded to Britain in 1846, and administered by the British North
Borneo Company; has rich coal-beds; its town, Victoria, is a market for
Borneo and the Sulu Archipelago, and exports sago, camphor, and pearls;
the population is chiefly Malay and Chinese.


LABYRINTH, a name given to sundry structures composed of winding passages
so intricate as to render it difficult to find the way out, and sometimes
in. Of these structures the most remarkable were those of Egypt and of
Crete. The Egyptian to the E. of Lake Moeris, consisted of an endless
number of dark chambers, connected by a maze of passages into which it
was difficult to find entrance; and the Cretan, built by Daedalus, at the
instance of Minos, to imprison the Minotaur, out of which one who entered
could not find his way out again unless by means of a skein of thread. It
was by means of this, provided him by ARIADNE, PERSEUS (q. v.) found his
way out after slaying the MINOTAUR (q. v.).


LAC, a term employed in India for a hundred thousand, a crore
amounting to 100 lacs, usually of money.


LACCADIVES, THE, or THE HUNDRED THOUSAND ISLES (14), a
group of low-lying coral islands 200 m. W. of the Malabar coast of India,
mostly barren, and yielding chiefly cocoa-nuts; the population being
Hindus professing Mohammedanism and poorly off.


LACEPEDE, COMTE DE, French naturalist, born at Agen; was entrusted
by Buffon to complete his Natural History on his death; wrote on his own
account also the natural histories of reptiles, of fishes, and of man
(1756-1825).


LACHAISE, FRANCOIS DE, a French Jesuit, an extremely politic member
of the fraternity in the reign of Louis XIV.; had a country house E. of
Paris, the garden of which is now the cemetery Pere la Chaise
(1624-1709).


LACHESIS, the one of the three Fates that spun the thread of life
and apportioned the destinies of man. See PARCAE.


LACHMANN, KARL, a German philologist and classical scholar, born at
Brunswick, professor at Berlin; besides sundry of the Latin classics, in
particular Lucretius, he edited the Nibelungen Lied, and the Greek New
Testament, as well as contributed important critical essays on the
composition of the "Iliad," which he regarded as a collection of lays
from various independent sources (1783-1851). See ILIAD.


LACHRYMA CHRISTI, a sweet wine of a red or amber colour, produced
from grapes grown on Mount Vesuvius.


LACONIA, ancient name for Sparta, the inhabitants of which were
noted for the brevity of their speech.


LACORDAIRE, JEAN BAPTISTE HENRY, a celebrated French preacher, and
one of the most brilliant orators of the century; bred for the bar; held
sceptical opinions at first, but came under the influence of religion;
took orders as a priest and became associated with Montalembert and
Lamennais as joint-editor of the _Avenir_, a journal which advocated
views at once Ultramontane and radical, but which, being condemned by the
Pope, was discontinued; after this he took to preaching, and immense
crowds gathered to hear his conferences, as they were called, in the
church of Notre Dame, where, to the astonishment of all, he appeared in
the pulpit in guise of a Dominican monk with the tonsure; he was
afterwards elected member of the Constitutent Assembly, where he sat in
his monk's attire, but he soon retired; he ended his days as head of the
Military College of Sorreze (1802-1861).


LACRATELLE, French historian, born at Metz; began life as a
journalist; became professor of History in Paris University; wrote a
history of the 18th century and of the French Revolution, showing very
great accuracy of detail, if little historical insight (1766-1855).


LA CROSSE, the national game of Canada, of Indian derivation; is
played twelve a side, each armed with a long-handled racquet or crosse,
the object of the game being to drive an india-rubber ball through the
opponents' goal.


LACTANTIUS, a Christian apologist of the early part of the 14th
century, who, from his eloquent advocacy of the Christian faith, was
styled the Christian Cicero; he was a pagan born, and by profession a
rhetorician.


LADISLAUS, the name of seven kings of Hungary, of which the first
(1077-1095) received canonisation for his zeal on behalf of Christianity.


LADOGA, a lake as large as Wales and the largest in Europe, in the
NW. of Russia, not far from St. Petersburg; it is the centre of an
extensive lake and river system, receiving the Volkhov, Syas, and Svir,
and drained into the Gulf of Finland by the Neva; but so dangerous is
navigation, owing to sunken rocks and shoals and to the storms that
prevail during the open months, that the extensive shipping is carried
round the S. shores by the Ladoga and the canals.


LADRONES or MARIANA ISLANDS (10), a well-watered,
thickly-wooded group in the North Pacific, 1400 m. E. of the Philippines
and belonging to Spain; produce cotton, indigo, and sugar, but the trade
is of little worth; the only town is San Ignazio de Agana, on the largest
island, Guam.


LADY CHAPEL, a chapel dedicated to the Virgin Mary attached to a
church.


LADY DAY, the festival of the annunciation of the Virgin Mary, March
25; a quarter-day in England and Ireland.


LADY OF ENGLAND, title of Matilda, daughter of Henry I. and wife of
Geoffrey Plantagenet, conferred on her by a council held at Westminster,
1141.


LADY OF SHALOTT, a maiden of great beauty, the subject of a poem by
Tennyson, in love with Lancelot, who died because her love was not
returned.


LADY OF THE LAKE, the name given to Vivien, the mistress of Merlin,
who dwelt in an imaginary lake, surrounded by a court of knights and
damsels; also to Helen Douglas, a heroine of Scott's, who lived with her
father near Loch Katrine.


LA FAYETTE, MADAME DE, novelist, born in Paris; is credited with
being the originator of the class of fiction in which character and its
analysis are held of chief account; she was the daughter of the governor
of Havre, and contracted a Platonic affection for La Rochefoucauld in his
old age, and was besides on intimate terms with Madame Sevigne and the
most eminent literary men of the time; her "Princess de Cleves" is a
classic work, and the merit of it is enhanced by the reflection that it
preceded by nearly half a century the works both of Le Sage and Defoe
(1634-1693).


LA FAYETTE, MARQUIS DE, born in the castle of Chavagnac; went to
America in 1777, took an active and self-sacrificing part in the War of
Independence; was honourably distinguished at the battle of Brandywine;
sailed for France, brought over auxiliaries; he commanded Washington's
vanguard in 1782; returned to Paris, and was made commander-in-chief of
the National Guard in 1789; would have achieved the Revolution with the
minimum of violence and set up a republic on the model of the Washington
one; was obliged to escape from France during the Reign of Terror; was
imprisoned five years at Olmuetz, but was liberated when Napoleon appeared
on the scene; as a consistent republican showed no favour to Napoleon;
took part in the Revolution of 1830, became again commander-in-chief of
the National Guard and a supporter of Louis Philippe, the citizen king;
characterised by Carlyle as "a constitutional pedant; clear, thin,
inflexible, as water turned to thin ice" (1757-1834).


LAFITTE, JACQUES, French banker and financier; played a conspicuous
part in the Revolution of 1830, and by his influence as a liberal
politician with the French people secured the elevation of Louis Philippe
to the throne; in the calamities attendant on this Revolution his house
became insolvent, but he was found, after paying all demands, to be worth
in francs nearly seven millions (1767-1844).


LAFONTAINE, JEAN DE, celebrated French author, born at
Chateau-Thierry, in Champagne; a man of indolent, gay, and dissipated
habits, but of resplendent genius, known to all the world for his
inimitable "Tales" and "Fables," and who was the peer of all the
distinguished literary notabilities of his time; the former, published in
1665, too often transgress the bounds of morality, but are distinguished
by exquisite grace of expression and sparkling wit; the latter, published
in 1668, have an irresistible charm which no reader can withstand; he was
the author also of the "Amours of Cupid and Psyche"; he was the friend of
Boileau, Moliere, and Racine, and in his later years a confirmed Parisian
(1621-1695).


LA FORCE, DUC DE, marechal of France under Henry IV., and one of the
most distinguished; escaped when an infant the massacre of St.
Bartholomew (1558-1652).


LAGOS (40), a large and thriving commercial town in a colony (100)
of the name subject to Britain, on the Guinea Coast of Africa.


LAGRANGE, JOSEPH LOUIS, COMTE, famous mathematician, born at Turin
of French parentage; had gained at the age of twenty a European
reputation by his abstruse algebraical investigations; appointed director
of Berlin Academy in 1766, he pursued his researches there for twenty-one
years; in 1787 he removed to Paris, where be received a pension from the
Court of 6000 francs, and remained till his death; universally respected,
he was unscathed by the Revolution; appointed to several offices, he
received the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour from Napoleon, who made
him a count (1736-1813).


LA HARPE, JEAN FRANCOIS DE, French litterateur and critic, born in
Paris; wrote dramas and eloges, but his best-known work is his "Cours de
Litterature" in 12 vols., of little account except for its criticism of
French literature, in which he showed not a little pedantry and
ill-temper as well as acuteness; he was zealous for the Revolution at
first, but drew back when extreme measures were adopted and became a warm
royalist, for which he was sentenced to deportation, but left at liberty
(1739-1803).


LA HOGUE, a cape with a roadstead on NE. of France, where a French
fleet sent by Louis XIV. to invade England on behalf of James II. was
destroyed in 1692.


LAHORE (177), an ancient walled city on the Ravi, a tributary of the
Indus, 1000 m. NW. of Calcutta, is the capital of the Punjab, and an
important railway centre; it has many fine buildings, both English and
native, including a university and a medical school, but the situation is
unhealthy; half the population are Mussulmans; the trade is
inconsiderable; the district of Lahore (1,075) one of the most important
in the province, is well irrigated by the Bari Doab Canal, and produces
fine crops of cereals, pulse, and cotton.


LAIDLAW, WILLIAM, Sir Walter Scott's factor at Abbotsford, born in
Selkirkshire; having failed in farming, entered Scott's service in 1817
and remained his trusted and faithful friend, advising him in his schemes
of improvement and acting latterly as his amanuensis till his death in
1832; thereafter he was factor in Ross-shire, where he died; he had some
poetic gift of his own, and contributed to the third volume of the
"Minstrelsy" (1780-1845).


LAING, DAVID, a learned antiquary, profound in his knowledge of
Scottish ecclesiastical and literary history, born, the son of
bookseller, at Edinburgh, followed for thirty years his father's trade;
was appointed to the charge of the Signet Library in 1837; was secretary
to the Bannatyne Club, and in 1864 received the degree of LL.D. from
Edinburgh University; he contributed many valuable papers to the
_Transactions of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland_, collected and
edited much of the ancient poetry of Scotland, and acquired a private
library of manuscripts and volumes of great value (1799-1878).


LAING, MALCOLM, Scottish historian, born in Orkney; passed through
Edinburgh University to the Scottish bar, to which he was called in 1785,
but proved an unsuccessful advocate; turning to literature, he edited
"Ossian," and wrote a "History of Scotland from James VI. to Anne"
(1800), in a subsequent edition of which he inserted the well-known
attack on Mary Stuart (1762-1818).


LAIS, the name of two Greek courtesans celebrated for their beauty,
the one a native of Corinth, who lived at the time of the Peloponnesian
War, and the other belonging to Sicily, and who, having visited Thessaly,
was stoned to death by the women of the country out of jealousy.


LAISSEZ-FAIRE (lit. let things alone and take their course), the
name given to the let-alone system of political economy, in opposition to
State interference, or State regulation, in private industrial
enterprise.


LAKE DISTRICT, a district in Cumberland and Westmorland, 20 m. long
by 25 m. broad, abounding in lakes, environed with scenery of rare
beauty, and much frequented by tourists.


LAKE DWELLINGS, primitive settlements, the remains of which have
been found in many parts of Europe, but chiefly in Switzerland, the N. of
Italy, and in Scotland and Ireland. They were constructed in various
ways. In the Swiss lakes piles, consisting of unbarked tree trunks, were
driven in a short distance from the shore, and strengthened more or less
by cross beams; extensive platforms laid on these held small villages of
rectangular wooden huts, thatched with straw and reeds. These were
sometimes approachable only in canoes, more often connected with the
shore by a narrow bridge, in which case cattle were kept in sheds on the
platforms. In Scotland and Ireland the erection was rather an artificial
island laid down in 10 or 12 ft. of water with brushwood, logs, and
stones, much smaller in size, and holding but one hut. The Swiss
dwellings, the chief of which are at Meilen, on Lake Zurich, date from
very early times, some say 2000 years before Christ, and contain remains
of the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages, weapons, instruments, pottery, linen
cloth, and the like. The relic of latest date is a Roman coin of A.D.
54. The British remains are much more recent, belonging entirely to the
Iron period and to historic times. The object sought in these structures
is somewhat obscure--most probably it was the security their insular
nature afforded.


LAKE POETS, a school of English poets, the chief representatives of
which were Wordsworth, Southey, and Coleridge, who adorned the beginning
of the 19th century, and were so designated by the _Edinburgh Review_
because their favourite haunt was the LAKE DISTRICT (q. v.) in
the N. of England, and the characteristic of whose poetry may be summed
as a feeling of and a sympathy with the pure spirit of nature.


LAKSHMI, in the Hindu mythology the wife of Vishnu and the goddess
of beauty, pleasure, and victory; she is a favourite subject of Hindu
painting and poetry.


LALANDE, a French astronomer; was professor of Astronomy in the
College of France, and produced an excellent treatise on the subject in
two vols. (1732-1807).


LALLA-ROOKH, the title of a poem by Moore, from the name of the
heroine, the daughter of the Mogul Emperor, Aurungzebe; betrothed to the
young king of Bacharia, she goes forth to meet him, but her heart having
been smitten by a poet she meets on the way, as she enters the palace of
her bridegroom she swoons away, but reviving at the sound of a familiar
voice she wakes up with rapture to find that the poet of her affection
was none other than the prince to whom she was betrothed.


LALLY-TOLLENDAL, or BARON DE TOLLENDAL, a French general, born
at Romans, in Dauphine, of Irish descent; saw service in Flanders;
accompanied Prince Charles to Scotland in 1745, and was in 1756 appointed
Governor-General of the French settlements in India, but being defeated
by the English he was accused of having betrayed the French interests,
and executed after two years' imprisonment in the Bastille (1702-1766).


LALLY-TOLLENDAL, MARQUIS DE, son of the preceding; successfully
vindicated the conduct of his father, and received back his paternal
estates that had unjustly been forfeited; supported LA FAYETTE
(q. v.) at the time of the Revolution, and followed his example; was
arrested in 1792, but escaped to England; returning to France, he
supported the Bourbon dynasty at the Restoration; wrote a "Defence of the
French Emigrants," and a Life of the Earl of Strafford, Charles I.'s
minister (1751-1830).


LAMAISM, Buddhism as professed in Thibet and Mongolia, or the
worship of Buddha and his DHARMA (q. v.); conceived of as
incarnated in the SANGHA (q. v.) or priesthood, and especially
in the Grand Lama or Dalai Lama, the chief priest; a kind of
hero-worship, or at all events saint-worship; long since sunk into mere
IDOLATRY (q. v.).


LAMARCK, a French naturalist, born at Bazentin, Picardy; entered the
army at the age of 17, and after serving in it a short time retired and
devoted himself to botany; in his "Flora Francaise" published (1773)
adopted a new method of classification of plants; in 1774 became keeper
of what ultimately became the Jardin des Plantes, and was professor of
Zoology, devoting himself to the study of particularly invertebrate
animals, the fruits of which study appeared in his "Histoire Naturelle
des Animaux sans Vertebres"; he held very advanced views on the matter of
biology, and it was not till the advent of Darwin they were appreciated
(1744-1820).


LA MARMORA, MARQUIS DE, an eminent Italian general and statesman,
born at Turin; fell under the rebuke of Bismarck for an indiscretion as a
diplomatist (1801-1878).


LAMARTINE, ALPHONSE MARIE DE, a French author, politician, and poet,
born in Macon; his poetic effusions procured for him admission into the
French Academy, and in 1834 he entered the Chamber of Deputies; his
ability as a poet, and the independent attitude he maintained in the
Chamber, gained for him a popularity which his action in 1848 contributed
to increase, but it suffered eclipse from the moment he allied himself
with Ledru-Rollin; after serving in the Provisional Government of 1848 he
stood candidate for the Presidency, but was defeated, and on the occasion
of the _coup d'etat_, he retired into private life; he published in 1819
"Meditations Poetiques," in 1847 the "Histoire de Girondins," besides
other works, including "Voyage en Orient"; he was "of the second order of
poets," says Professor Saintsbury, "sweet but not strong, elegant but not
full;... a sentimentalist and a landscape painter" (1790-1869).


LAMB, CHARLES, essayist and critic, born in London, and educated at
Christ's Hospital, where he had Coleridge for school-fellow; was for 35
years a clerk in the East India Company's office, on his retirement from
which he was allowed a pension of L450; it was as a poet he made his
first appearance in literature, but it was as an essayist he attained
distinction, and chiefly by his "Essays of Elia" he is best known and
will be longest remembered; he was the friend of Wordsworth, Southey, and
others of his illustrious contemporaries, and is famous for his witty
remarks, to which his stammering tongue imparted a special zest; he was
never married; his affection for his sister Mary, for whom he composed
his "Tales from Shakespeare," is well known, and how in her weakness from
insanity he tenderly nursed her (1775-1834).


LAMBALLE, PRINCESSE DE, a young widow, the devoted friend of Marie
Antoinette, born at Turin; was for her devotion to the queen one of the
victims of the September massacres and brutally outraged; "she was
beautiful, she was good, she had known no happiness" (1748-1792).


LAMBERT, JOHANN HEINRICH, German philosopher and mathematician; was
the successor and rival of Leibnitz in both regards, and was patronised
by Frederick the Great (1619-1728).


LAMBERT, JOHN, one of Cromwell's officers in the civil war, born in
Yorkshire; served in the successive engagements during the war from that
of Marston Moor onwards, and assisted at the installation of Cromwell as
Protector, but declined to take the oath of allegiance afterwards; on the
death of the Protector essayed with other officers to govern the country,
an attempt which was defeated by Monk, and for which he was imprisoned,
tried, and banished (1619-1683).


LAMBETH (275), part of the SW. quarter of London, and a
parliamentary borough in Surrey returning four members; abounds in
manufactories, contains St. Thomas's Hospital and Lambeth Palace, the
official residence of the Archbishop of Canterbury, with a magnificent
library and important historic portrait-gallery.


LAMENNAIS, FELICITE, ROBERT DE, a French theologian and journalist,
born at St. Malo; began life as a free-thinker, but by-and-by became a
Roman Catholic of the extreme ultramontane type; in 1820 went to Rome and
was offered a cardinalate, but in 1830 his views changed, and he joined
Montalembert and Lacordaire in the conduct of _L'Avenir_, a journal which
advocated religious and political freedom, on the condemnation of which
by the Pope he became again a free-thinker and revolutionary; his
influence on French literature was great, and affected both Michelet and
Victor Hugo (1782-1854).


LAMENTATIONS, BOOK OF, one of the poetical books of the Old
Testament, ascribed to Jeremiah and historically connected with his
prophecies, written apparently after the fall of Jerusalem and in sight
of its ruins, as lamentation over the general desolation in the land
connected therewith.


LAMMAS DAY, the first of August, literally "the loaf-mass" day or
festival day at the beginning of harvest, one of the cross quarter days,
Whitsuntide, Martinmas, and Candlemas being the other three.


LAMMERMOORS, a range of hills separating the counties of Haddington
and Berwick, extending from Gala Water to St. Abb's Head, the Lammer Law
being 1733 ft.


LA METTRIE, a French physician and materialist, born at St. Malo;
bred to medicine, served as an army surgeon at Dettingen and Fontenoy;
his materialistic views were given first in a publication entitled
"D'Histoire Naturelle de l'Ame," and at length in his "L'Homme Machine,"
both in profession of a materialism so gross and offensive, being
absolutely atheistic, that he was glad to escape for shelter to Berlin
under the wing of Frederick the Great (1709-1754).


LAMOTTE, COUNTESS DE, born at Fontelle, in Aube, who came up to
Paris a shifty adventuress and played a chief part in the notorious
affair of the DIAMOND NECKLACE (q. v.), which involved so many
high people in France in deep disgrace (1756-1791). See CARLYLE'S
"MISCELLANIES."


LANARK (5), county town of Lanarkshire, on the Clyde, 31 m. SE. of
Glasgow; has a cattle-market and some weaving industry, and is for
parliamentary purposes in the Falkirk group of burghs.


LANARKSHIRE (1,106), inland Scottish county occupying the Clyde
valley, in size the twelfth, but first in wealth and population. The
middle and south are hilly, with such outstanding peaks as Tinto, and are
adapted for cattle and sheep grazing and for dairy-farming. The lower
north-western portion is very rich in coal and iron, the extensive mining
and manufacture of which has given rise to many busy towns such as
Glasgow, Motherwell, Hamilton, Coatbridge, and Airdrie; fireclay, shale,
and lead are also found; the soil is various; comparatively little grain
is grown; there are large woods. The orchards of the river side have
given place mostly to market gardens, which the proximity of great towns
renders profitable. The industries, besides iron and coal, are very
extensive and varied, and include great textile works.


LANCASHIRE (3,927), English county stretching from the Cumberland
Mountains in the N. to the Mersey in the S. along the shores of the Irish
Sea; is the wealthiest and most populous county, and the indentations of
the coast-line adapt it to be the chief outlet westward for English
trade, more than a third of England's foreign commerce passing through
its ports. The country is mostly low, with spurs of the Yorkshire hills;
it is rich in minerals, chiefly coal and iron; its industrial enterprise
is enormous; nearly half of the cotton manufacture of the world is
carried on in its towns, besides woollen and silk manufacture, the making
of engineer's tools, boots and shoes. The soil is a fertile loam, under
corn and green crops and old pasture. Lancaster is the county town, but
the largest towns are Liverpool, Manchester, Preston, and Blackburn. The
northern portion, detached by Morecambe Bay, is known as Furness, belongs
really to the Lake District, and has Barrow-in-Furness, with its large
shipbuilding concerns, for its chief town. Lancashire has long been an
influential political centre.


LANCASTER (31), picturesque town near the mouth of the Lune, 50 m.
NW. of Manchester, is the county town of Lancashire, and manufactures
furniture, cotton, machinery, and railway plant; it was disfranchised in
1867 for corrupt practices.


LANCASTER, JOSEPH, educationist, born in Southwark, and founder of
the Monitorial System; had a chequered career, died in poverty
(1778-1838).


LANCELOT OF THE LAKE, one of the Knights of the Round Table, famous
for his gallantry and his amours with Queen Guinevere; was called of the
Lake because educated at the court of the LADY OF THE LAKE (q. v.);
he turned hermit in the end, and died a holy man.


LAND LEAGUE, an organisation founded by DAVITT (q. v.) in
Ireland in 1879 to deal with the land question, and suppressed in 1881 as
illegal.


LANDAMAN, name given to the chief magistrate in certain Swiss
cantons, also to the President of the Swiss Diet.


LANDER, RICHARD, African explorer, born in Truro, Cornwall;
accompanied Clapperton as his servant; along with his brother John
discovered the lower course of the Niger; on the third expedition was
wounded in a conflict with the natives, and died at Fernando Po
(1804-1834).


LANDES, sandy plains along the French coast between the Garonne and
the Pyrenees, covered with heath and broom.


LANDGRABBER, name given in Ireland to one in the possession or
occupancy of land from which another has been evicted.


LANDGRAVE, title given to certain counts of the old German empire
who had the rank of princes.


LANDON, LETITIA ELIZABETH, known as L. E. L., authoress, born in
Chelsea; a charming woman, who wrote well both in verse and prose; was
Mrs. Hemans's successor; having taken prussic acid by mistake had a
tragic end (1802-1838).


LANDOR, WALTER SAVAGE, eminent literary man, born in Warwick, a man
of excitable temperament, which involved him in endless quarrels leading
to alienations, but did not affect his literary work; figured first as a
poet in "Gebir" and "Count Julian," to the admiration of Southey, his
friend, and De Quincey, and ere long as a writer of prose in his
"Imaginary Conversations," embracing six volumes, on which recent critics
have bestowed unbounded praise, Swinburne in particular; he died in
Florence separated from his family, and dependent on it there for six
years; Carlyle visited him at Bath in 1850, and found him "stirring
company; a proud, irascible, trenchant, yet generous, veracious, and very
dignified old man; quite a ducal or royal man in the temper of him"
(1775-1864).


LAND'S END, a bold promontory of granite rock on the SW. coast of
Cornwall.


LANDSEER, SIR EDWIN HENRY, greatest English animal-painter, born in
London, the son of an engraver and writer on art, trained by his father,
sketched animals before he was six years old, and exhibited in the Royal
Academy before thirteen; in his early years he portrayed simply the form
and colour and movement of animal life, but after his twenty-first year
he added usually some sentiment or idea; elected A.R.A. in 1826, and R.A.
in 1830; he was knighted in 1853; five years later he won a gold medal
in Paris; in 1859 he modelled the Trafalgar Square lions; after 1861 he
suffered from mental depression, and declined the Presidency of the Royal
Academy in 1866 (1802-1873).


LANDSTURM, the name given to the last reserve in the German army,
which is never called out except in time of war.


LANDTHING, the name of the Upper House in the Danish Parliament.


LANDWEHR, a military force in Germany and Austria held in reserve
against a time of war, when it is called out to do ordinary military
duty. In Germany those capable of bearing arms have to serve in it five
years after completing their seven years' term of regular service.


LANE, EDWARD WILLIAM, eminent Arabic scholar, born at Hereford; set
out for Egypt in 1825; studied the language and manners, and returned in
1828; published in 1836 an "Account of the Manners and Customs of the
Modern Egyptians"; translated in 1840 "The Arabian Nights," and spent
seven years in Egypt preparing an Arabic Lexicon which he had all but
finished when he died; it was completed and edited by S. Lane-Poole
(1801-1876).


LANFRANC, archbishop of Canterbury, born at Pavia; went to France,
entered the monastery of Bec, and became prior in 1046, and was
afterwards, in 1062, elected prior of the abbey of St. Stephen at Caen;
and came over to England with William the Conqueror, who appointed him to
the archbishopric rendered vacant by the deposition of Stigand; he was
William's trusted adviser, but his influence declined under Rufus; _d_.
1089.


LANFREY, PIERRE, historian, born at Chambery; wrote an elaborate
History of Napoleon to, it is reckoned, the irreparable damage of its
hero (1828-1877).


LANG, ANDREW, a versatile writer, born in Selkirk; has distinguished
himself in various departments of literary work, as a poet, a
folk-lorist, a writer of fancy tales, a biographer, and a critic; has
composed "Ballads and Lyrics of Old France," "Ballads in Blue China"; has
translated Homer into musical prose, and written the Lives of Sir
Stafford Northcote and John Gibson Lockhart; he began his literary career
as a journalist, and his assiduity as a writer has never relaxed; _b_.
1844.


LANGE, FRIEDRICH, German philosopher, born near Solingen, son of the
following; became professor at Marburg; wrote a "History of Materialism"
of great value (1828-1875).


LANGE, JOHANN PETER, a German theologian, born near Elberfeld;
became professor at Bonn; his works are numerous, but is best known by
his "Life of Christ" and his "Christian Dogmatic" (1802-1884).


LANGHORNE, JOHN, an English divine and poet, horn at Kirkby Stephen;
was a prebend of Wells Cathedral; wrote a poem entitled "Genius and
Virtue," and executed with a brother a translation of Plutarch's Lives
(1735-1779).


LANGLAND, or LANGLEY, WILLIAM, the presumed author of the
"Vision of Piers Plowman," and who lived in the 14th century.


LANGRES (10), a French town, strongly fortified, near the sources of
the Marne, rich in antiquities, and one of the oldest towns in France;
has manufactures and a considerable trade.


LANGTON, STEPHEN, archbishop of Canterbury, born in England but
educated in France; a man of ability and scholarly attainments; in 1206
visited Rome, was made Cardinal by Innocent III., presented to the
Archbishopric, and consecrated at Viterbo in 1207; King John refused to
acknowledge him, and the kingdom was put under an interdict, a quarrel
which it took five years to settle; established in the primacy, the
prelate took up a constitutional position, and mediated between the king
and the barons to the advancement of political liberty; _d_. 1228.


LANGUEDOC, a province in the S. of France, annexed to the French
crown in 1361, and now divided into nine departments, borders on the
Rhone.


LANKA, name given to Ceylon in the Hindu mythology.


LANNES, JEAN, DUC DE MONTEBELLO, marshal of France, born at
Lectoure; was much esteemed by Napoleon, whom he zealously supported;
went with him to Egypt, was with him at Marengo, distinguished himself at
Austerlitz and in Spain, and fell mortally wounded at Essling
(1769-1809).


LANSDOWNE, HENRY, THIRD MARQUIS OF, liberal politician, born in
London; educated at Edinburgh and Cambridge; sat in the Commons as member
for Calne from 1801 and for Cambridge from 1806, and succeeded to the
peerage in 1809; on the accession of the Liberals to power he joined the
Cabinet of Canning, presided at the Foreign Office in Goderich's
administration, became President of the Council under Lord Grey in 1830,
and, twice refusing the Premiership, was a member of every Liberal
Government till 1858, when he retired from public life; he was the
trusted adviser of his party, and friend of the Queen till his death
(1780-1863).


LANSDOWNE, HENRY, FIFTH MARQUIS OF, Liberal statesman, grandson of
the above, educated at Oxford; succeeded to the peerage in 1866, and held
office in Liberal Governments, Lord of the Treasury 1868-72,
Under-Secretary for War 1872-74, and Under-Secretary for India 1880; he
was Governor-General of Canada 1883-88, and Viceroy of India 1888-94; in
1895 he joined Lord Salisbury's ministry as a Liberal-Unionist, becoming
Secretary for War; _b_. 1845.


LANTERNE, LA, a stout lamp-iron at the corner of a street in Paris,
used by the mob for extemporised executions during the Revolution by
Lynch law.


LAOCOeON, a priest of Apollo, in Troy, who having offended the god
by, for one thing, advising the Trojans not to admit the wooden horse of
the Greeks within the walls, was, with his two sons, while engaged in
sacrificing to Poseidon, strangled to death in the coils of two enormous
serpents sent to kill him, a subject which is the theme of one of the
grandest relics of ancient sculpture now in existence and preserved in
the Vatican.


LAODAMIA, a Grecian lady, who accompanied her husband to the Trojan
War, and who, on his death on the field, begged the gods to restore him
to her for three hours, a prayer which was granted, but with the result
that at the end of the time she died along with him and accompanied him
on his return to Hades.


LAODICEA. Eight ancient cities bore this name; the chief, situated
on the Lycus, in Phrygia, lay on the way between Ionia and the Euphrates;
was a city of great commerce and wealth, the seat of schools of art,
science, medicine, and philosophy, and of an early Christian bishopric;
though the Church was stigmatised in the Revelation, two councils
assembled here in A.D. 363 and 476, the former of which influenced the
determination of the canon of both Testaments; the city, destroyed by the
Mohammedan invasions, is now in ruins.


LAOMEDON, the founder of Troy, who persuaded Apollo and Neptune to
assist him in building the walls, but refused the recompense when the
work was finished, in consequence of which the latter sent a monster to
ravage the country, which could be propitiated only by the annual
sacrifice to it of a young maid, till one year the lot fell on Hermione,
the king's daughter, when Hercules, persuaded by the king, slew the
monster and delivered the maiden.


LAOTZE (i. e. the old Philosopher), a Chinese sage, born in the
province of Ho-nan about 565 B.C., a contemporary of Confucius, who
wrote the celebrated "Tao-te-King," canon, that is, of the Tao, or divine
reason, and of virtue, one--and deservedly so on account of its high
ethics--of the sacred books of China; he was the founder of one of the
three principal religions of China, Confucianism and Buddhism being the
other two, although his followers, the Tao-sze as they are called, are
now degenerated into a set of jugglers.


LA PEROUSE, a celebrated French navigator, born near Albi, in
Languedoc; after distinguished services in the navy was in 1785 sent with
two frigates on a voyage of discovery by Louis XVI.; "the brave
navigator" went forth, sailing along the Pacific shores of America and
Asia as far as Botany Bay, but never returned; "the seekers search far
seas for him in vain; he has vanished trackless into blue immensity, and
only some mournful mysterious shadow of him hovers long in all heads and
hearts" (1741-1788).


LAPITHAE, a race inhabiting the mountains of Thessaly; subject to
Perithous, who, on the occasion of his marriage with Hippodamia, invited
his kinsfolk the Centaurs to the feast, but these, under intoxication
from the wine, attempting to carry off the bride and other women, were
set on by the Lapithae and, after a bloody struggle, overpowered.


LAPLACE, a celebrated French mathematician, born at
Beaumont-en-Auge, Normandy; the son of a farmer; after teaching in his
native place went to Paris (1767), where he became professor in the Royal
Military School; becoming member of the Academie des Sciences in 1785, he
attained a position among mathematicians and astronomers almost equal to
Newton's; his "Three Laws" demonstrated the stability of the solar
system; he published many treatises on lunar and planetary problems,
electricity, magnetism, and a Nebula-hypothesis; his "Mecanique Celeste"
is unrivalled in that class of work; surviving the Revolution he became
implicated in politics without success or credit; he received his
marquisate from Louis XVIII. in 1817, when he became President of the
French Academy; "LAGRANGE (q. v.) has proved that on Newton's
theory of gravitation the planetary system would endure for ever;
Laplace, still more cunningly, even guessed that it could not have been
made on any other scheme" (1749-1827).


LAPLAND (28), a stretch of country in the N. of Europe, between the
Atlantic and the White Sea; is divided between Norway, Sweden, Finland,
and Russia. Its climate is very severe; mountainous in the W., it becomes
more level in the E., where are many marshes, lakes, and rivers; the
summer is never dark, and there are six to eight weeks of winter never
light. The Lapps, of whom 18,000 are in Norwegian Lapland, are closely
allied to the Finns, small of stature, thick lipped, and with small
piercing eyes; proverbially uncleanly, not very intelligent, are
good-natured, but untruthful and parsimonious; nominally Christian, but
very superstitious; they are kindly treated by both Norway and Sweden.
The mountain Lapps are nomads, whose wealth consists of herds of
reindeer, which supply nearly all their wants. The sea Lapps live by
fishing. The forest and river Lapps, originally nomads, have adopted a
settled life, domesticated their reindeer, and taken to hunting and
fishing.


LA PLATA (65), a new city, founded in 1884 as capital of the prov.
of Buenos Ayres, 30 m. SE. of Buenos Ayres city; rapidly built, it has
continued to grow, and has now some handsome buildings, a college, and
cotton and woollen manufactures; a canal connects it with the La Plata
River.


LA PLATA RIVER, a broad estuary in South America, from 28 to 140 m.
broad and 200 m. long, with Uruguay on the N. and the Argentine Republic
on the S., through which the Uruguay and Parana rivers pour into the
Atlantic; it is much exposed to storms; its best harbour is at Monte
Video.


LAPSI, name given to apostates in the early Christian Church.


LAPUTA, a flying island inhabited by speculative philosophers,
visited by Gulliver in his "Travels," who, when their minds began to be
too much absorbed in their studies, were wakened up by a set of
attendants called "Flappers" armed with dried bladders full of small
pebbles or "dried peas" attached to the end of a stick, with which they
struck them gently about the mouth and ears.


LARDNER, DIONYSIUS, a popular scientist, born in Dublin; wrote a
number of scientific works; edited a Cyclopedia, being a series of
volumes on scientific subjects; was professor of Natural Philosophy and
Astronomy in University College, London, but from a misdemeanour had to
vacate his chair and emigrate to America (1793-1859).


LARDNER, NATHANIEL, an English divine, ecclesiastically a
Presbyterian but theologically a Unitarian, author of "Credibility of the
Gospel History" and "Jewish and Heathen Testimonies" in favour of
Christianity (1684-1768).


LARES, household deities of the Romans; originally deified ancestors
of the families whose family life they protected, and images of whom were
kept in some shrine in the house near the hearth. Besides these domestic
lares, there were public lares, who were protectors of the whole
community. Both classes were objects of worship.


LARISSA (13), the capital of Thessaly, in Greece; stands in a sandy
plain; is the seat of a Greek archbishop; has mosques as well as
churches.


LA ROCHEFOUCAULD, FRANCOIS, DUC DE, a great maxim writer, member of
a French family of Angoumois, born at Paris; played a conspicuous part in
the war of the Fronde; was present at several engagements, and was
wounded twice over, and retired at length in shattered health; he passed
the rest of his days at court, where he enjoyed the society of the most
distinguished ladies of the time; his "Maxims" appeared in 1665, and were
immediately appreciated; they bear one and all on ethical subjects, and
are the fruit of a life of large and varied commerce with the race
(1613-1680).


LA ROCHEJAQUELEIN, HENRI, COMTE DE, a celebrated Vendean royalist;
the peasants of La Vendee having in 1792 risen in the royal cause, he
placed himself at the head of them, and after gaining six victories was
killed fighting in single combat while defending Nouaille (1772-1794).


LAROUSSE, PIERRE, a celebrated French grammarian and lexicographer;
best known by his "Grand Dictionnaire Universel du xix^{me} Siecle"
(1817-1875).


LARRY, DOMINIQUE JEAN, BARON, a celebrated military surgeon;
distinguished for the organisation he instituted of the "flying
ambulance" for the care of the wounded in battle; accompanied Napoleon to
Egypt; served in the Russian campaign; was wounded and taken prisoner at
Waterloo; wrote treatises on army surgery (1766-1842).


LA SALLE, ROBERT CAVELIER SIEUR DE, a French explorer, born at
Rouen; set out from Canada and explored the North American continent
along the course of the Mississippi as far as the Gulf of Mexico,
planting the French flag at what he thought was, but was not, the mouth
of the river; was assassinated by one of his retinue in the end
(1640-1687).


LASCARS, East Indians serving as seamen on board of British vessels,
who have proved very tractable, and make excellent sailors; they are
mostly Mohammedans.


LASCARSIS, CONSTANTINO, an eminent Greek scholar, born in Phrygia;
on the fall of Constantinople in 1453 came with his brother John to
Italy, published a Greek grammar, opened a school at Rome and Naples for
Greek and Rhetoric, and did much to propagate in Italy a taste for
Hellenic literature (1445-1535).


LAS CASAS, BARTHOLOME DE, a celebrated Spanish priest, surnamed the
Apostle of the Indians, born at Seville; visited the West Indies early
under Columbus; took a deep interest in the natives; was grieved to see
the usage they were subjected to there, as well as elsewhere, under the
rule of Spain, and spent his life in persuading his countrymen to adopt a
more lenient and humane treatment; crossed the ocean twelve times on
their behalf; was made Bishop of Chiapa, in Mexico, in 1554; died in
Madrid (1474-1566).


LAS CASES, French historiographer; became attached to Napoleon and
accompanied him to St. Helena, and after his death published his Memorial
of St. Helena, with an account of Napoleon's life and the treatment he
was subjected to there (1766-1842).


LASCO, JOHANNES, a Protestant Reformer, born in Poland; studied at
Rome and Bologna, and entered holy orders; became acquainted with Erasmus
at Basel, and joined the Reformation movement; settled at Emden; accepted
an invitation from Cranmer to London, and ministered to a Protestant
congregation there, but left it on the accession of Mary, and in 1556
returned to Poland and contributed largely to the movement already begun
there (1490-1560).


LAS PALMAS (17), the capital of the Canary Islands, on the NE. of
the Grand Canary, the second largest of the group; is the seat of the
Government, and a health resort.


LASSALLE, FERDINAND, founder of Socialism in Germany, born at
Breslau, of Jewish parents; attended the universities of Breslau and
Berlin; became a disciple of Hegel; took part in the Revolution of 1848,
and was sent to prison for six months; in 1861 his "System of Acquired
Rights" started an agitation of labour against capital, and he was again
thrown into prison; on his release founded an association to secure
universal suffrage and other reforms; returning to Switzerland he
conceived a passionate affection for a lady betrothed to a noble whom she
was compelled to marry, and whom he challenged, but by whom he was
mortally wounded in a duel (1825-1864).


LASSELL, WILLIAM, astronomer, born at Bolton, discovered the
satellite of Neptune, and the eighth satellite of Saturn, in an
observatory of his own, with instruments of his own construction
(1799-1880).


LASSEN, CHRISTIAN, eminent Orientalist, born at Bergen; studied Pali
with Burnouf in Paris; became professor of Indian Languages and
Literature in Bonn; contributed largely to our knowledge of cuneiform
inscriptions, and wrote, among other works, an epoch-making work entitled
"Indische Alterthumskunde."


LASSO, a well-plaited strip of hide, with a noose, to catch wild
horses or cattle with.


LATAKIA (10), a seaport on the coast of Syria; exports a tobacco of
a fine quality, to which it gives name.


LATEEN SAIL, a triangular sail common on the Mediterranean.


LATERAN, the palace, originally a basilica, built by Constantine in
Rome about 333, the residence of the Pope till 1308, and from which no
fewer than five Ecumenical Councils receive their names as held in it,
namely, those of 1123, 1139, 1179, 1215, and 1518; the church, called the
Church of St. John Lateran, is the cathedral church of Rome.


LATHAM, ROBERT GORDON, ethnologist and philologist, born at
Billingborough Vicarage, Lincolnshire, graduated at Cambridge 1832. and
became Fellow of King's College; qualifying in medicine he held
appointments in the London hospitals, but meanwhile was attracted to
philology and ethnology, appointed professor of English Language and
Literature in University College, London, 1839, and director of the
ethnological department of the Crystal Palace, 1852; in 1862 he
affirmed, against the most weighty authorities, that the Aryan stock is
originally European, not Asian, a view which has since found favour; he
published his "English Language" in 1841, and "The Natural History of the
Varieties of Mankind" in 1850, and was pensioned in 1863 (1812-1888).


LATIMER, HUGH, Bishop of Worcester, born near Leicester; studied at
Cambridge, and entered the Church, but soon adopted the Reformed
doctrines, gained the favour of Henry VIII. by approving of his divorce,
and was appointed bishop; by his labours in Worcester as a preacher of
the Reformed faith he lost the royal favour, and was twice committed to
the Tower for his obstinacy, he the while resigning his appointment;
under Edward VI. his zeal as a preacher had full scope, but under Mary
his mouth was gagged, and he was burnt at the stake along with Ridley,
opposite Balliol College, Oxford (1490-1545).


LATIN UNION, a convention in 1865, between France, Italy, Belgium,
Switzerland, and Greece, to establish an international monetary standard.


LATITUDINARIANS, the name given to a body of theologians belonging
to the Church of England who, at the end of the 17th century, sought, in
the interest of religion, to affiliate the dogmas of the Church, with the
principles of philosophy as grounded on reason; they were mostly of the
school of Plato, and among their leaders were Cudworth and Henry More.


LATONA, the Latin name for Greek LETO (q. v.).


LATOUR D'AUVERGNE, CORRET DE, a French grenadier, born in Brittany;
celebrated for his intrepidity and his self-sacrificing patriotism;
distinguished himself in the wars of the Revolution; would accept no
promotion, and declined even the title of "First Grenadier of the
Republic" which Bonaparte wished to confer on him, but by which he is
known to posterity (1743-1800).


LATRIELLE, PIERRE ANDRE, French naturalist, born at Brives, in
Correze; one of the founders of the science of Entomology; succeeded
Lamarck as professor in Natural History in the Jardin des Plantes; wrote
several works on entomology (1762-1833).


LATRIA, the name given in Catholic theology to the worship of God,
as distinguished from DULIA (q. v.), their name for the worship
of saints.


LATTER-DAY PAMPHLETS, a series of pamphlets published by Carlyle in
1850, in vehement denunciation of the political, social, and religious
imbecilities and injustices of the period.


LATTER-DAY SAINTS. See MORMONS.


LAUD, WILLIAM, archbishop of Canterbury, born at Reading, son of a
clothier; studied at and became a Fellow of St. John's College, Oxford,
was ordained in 1601; early gave evidence of his High-Church proclivities
and his hostility to the Puritans, whom for their disdain of forms he
regarded as the subverters of the Church; he rose by a succession of
preferments, archdeaconship of Huntingdon one of them, to the Primacy,
but declined the offer of a cardinal's hat at the hands of the Pope, and
became along with Strafford a chief adviser of the unfortunate Charles
I.; his advice did not help the king out of his troubles, and his
obstinate, narrow-minded pedantry brought his own head to the block; he
was beheaded for treason on Tower Hill, Jan. 10, 1645; he "could _see_ no
religion" in Scotland once on a visit there, "because he saw no ritual,
and his soul was grieved" (1573-1645).


LAUDERDALE, JOHN MAITLAND, DUKE OF, Scottish Secretary under Charles
II., professed Covenanting sympathies in his youth, and attended the
Westminster Assembly of Divines as a Commissioner for Scotland 1643;
succeeding to the earldom in 1645 he joined the Royalists in the Civil
War, was made prisoner at Worcester 1651, and confined for nine years;
receiving his Scottish office at the Restoration he devoted himself to
establishing by every means the absolute power of the king in Church and
State; his measures were responsible for the rising of 1666 and in part
for that of 1677; but he made the Episcopal Church quite subservient;
appointed to the Privy Council, he sat in the "Cabal" ministry, was made
duke in 1672, and in spite of intrigues and an attempt to censure him in
the Commons, remained in power till 1680; he was shrewd, clever, witty,
sensual, and unscrupulous; then and still hated in Scotland (1616-1682).


LAUENBURG (49), a duchy of N. Germany, between Holstein and
Mecklenburg, was annexed to Prussia in 1876.


LAUGHING PHILOSOPHER, a name given to Democrates of Abdera for a
certain flippancy he showed.


LAUNCESTON (17), on the Tamar, the second city in Tasmania, is the
chief port and market in the N., a fine city, carrying on a good trade
with Australian ports, and serving as a summer resort to Melbourne.


LAURA, a young Avignonese married lady, for whom Petrarch conceived
a Platonic affection, and who exercised a lifelong influence over him.


LAUREATE, POET, originally an officer of the royal household whose
business it was to celebrate in an ode any joyous occasion connected with
royalty, originally the sovereign's birthday; it is now a mere honour
bestowed by royalty on an eminent poet.


LAURIER, SIR WILFRED, Premier of Canada since 1896, and the first
French-Canadian to attain that honour, born in St. Lin; bred for the bar,
soon rose to the top of his profession; elected in 1871 as a Liberal to
the Quebec Provincial Assembly, where he came at once to the front, and
elected in 1874 to the Federal Assembly, he became distinguished as "the
silver-tongued Laurier," and as the Liberal leader; his personality is as
winning as his eloquence, and he stood first among all the Colonial
representatives at Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee in 1897; _b_. 1841.


LAUSANNE (33), a picturesque town on the slopes of the Jura, 1 m.
from the N. shore of Lake Geneva, is the capital of the Swiss canton of
Vaud; noted for its educational institutions and museums, and for its
magnificent Protestant cathedral; it has little industry, but
considerable trade, and is a favourite tourist resort; here took place
the disputation between Calvin, Farel, and Viret, and here Gibbon wrote
the "Decline and Fall."


LAVA, a general term for all rocks originating in molten streams
from volcanoes, includes traps, basalts, pumice, and others; the surface
of a lava stream cools and hardens quickly, presenting a cellulose
structure, while below the heat is retained much longer and the rock when
cooled is compact and columnar or crystalline; the largest recorded lava
flow was from Skaptar Joekull, Iceland, in 1783.


LAVALETTE, COUNT DE, French general, born at Paris; condemned to
death after the Restoration as an accomplice of Napoleon, he was saved
from death by the devotion of his wife, who was found in the prison
instead of him on the morning appointed for his execution (1769-1830).


LA VALLIERE, DUCHESSE DE, a fascinating woman, born at Tours, who
became the mistress of Louis XIV.; supplanted by another, she became a
Carmelite nun in 1674 in the Carmelite nunnery in Paris, and continued
doing penance there as would seem till her death (1644-1710).


LAVATER, JOHANN KASPAR, German clergyman, a mystic thinker and
writer on physiognomy, born at Zurich; wrote "Outlooks to Eternity," and
a work on physiognomy, or the art of judging of character from the
features of the face (1741-1804).


LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT, one of the founders of modern chemistry,
born in Paris; to prosecute his researches accepted the post of
farmer-general in 1769, introduced in 1776 improvements in manufacturing
gunpowder, discovered the composition of the air and the nature of
oxygen, applied the principles of chemistry to agriculture, and indicated
the presence and action of these principles in various other domains of
scientific inquiry; called to account for his actions as farmer-general,
one in particular "putting water in the tobacco," and condemned to the
guillotine; he in vain begged for a fortnight's respite to finish some
experiments, "the axe must do its work" (1742-1794).


LAW, JOHN, financier and speculator, son of a goldsmith and banker,
born at Edinburgh; was early noted for his calculating power; visiting
London in 1691 he got into debt, sold his estate, killed a man in a duel,
and escaped to Amsterdam, where he studied finance; came to Scotland with
financial proposals for the Government in 1700, but they were refused,
and he spent some years on the Continent as a gambling adventurer; in
1716 he and his brother William started a private bank in Paris, the
success of which induced the Regent Orleans in 1718 to institute the
"Royal Bank of France," with Law as director; next year he floated the
"Mississippi Scheme" for the settlement of Louisiana, but after a show of
success the scheme proved a bubble; he had to fly to Brussels, his
property being confiscated; he died at Venice, poor, but scheming to the
end (1671-1729).


LAW, WILLIAM, author of "A Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life,"
born at Kingscliffe, Northamptonshire, son of a grocer; entered Cambridge
in 1705; became a Fellow, and took orders in 1711; became associated with
the family of the elder Gibbon, father of the historian, in 1727, and
spent ten years with them as tutor, friend, and spiritual director; in
1740 he retired to Kingscliffe, where he spent the remainder of his life
in seclusion, shared by Miss Hester Gibbon, the historian's aunt, and
Mrs. Hutcheson, a widow of means, occupying themselves much with
charitable schemes; Law was an able theologian and dialectician, and an
exponent of German mysticism; his writings contributed greatly to the
evangelical revival (1686-1761).


LAWRENCE, JOHN, LORD, the "Saviour of India," born of Irish
parentage at Richmond, Yorkshire; entered the Bengal Civil Service in
1829, and on the annexation of the Punjab was appointed Commissioner and
afterwards Lieutenant-Governor; by his justice and the reforms he carried
through he so won the esteem of the Sikhs that at the Mutiny he was able
to disarm the Punjab mutineers, raise 50,000 men, and capture Delhi;
returning to England he received a pension of L1000 a year, was made
successively baronet and Privy Councillor, and sent out again as
Governor-General of India in 1863; his rule was characterised by wise
policy and sound finance; he disapproved of English interference in
Afghan affairs; he was raised to the peerage in 1869 (1811-1879).


LAWRENCE, ST., a deacon of the Church at Rome, who suffered
martyrdom in the time of Valerian, 258, by being broiled on a gridiron,
which he is represented in Christian art as holding in his hand.


LAY BROTHER, a member of a monastery under the three monastic vows,
but not in holy orders.


LAYAMON, early English poet who flourished in the 12th century, and
was by his own account priest near Bewdley, on the Severn; was author of
a long poem or chronicle of 32,250 lines called "Brut d'Angleterre," and
which is of interest as showing how Anglo-Saxon passed into the English
of Chaucer.


LAYARD, SIR AUSTEN HENRY, English traveller and diplomatist, born at
Paris; spent his boyhood in Italy, and studied law in London; between
1845 and 1847 he conducted excavations at the ruins of Nineveh, securing
for the British Museum its famous specimens of Assyrian art, and on his
return published works on "Nineveh and its Remains" and "Monuments of
Nineveh"; he received the freedom of London, Oxford gave him D.C.L., and
Aberdeen University chose him for Lord Rector; entering Parliament in
1852, he sat for Aylesbury and for Southwark, and was Under-secretary for
Foreign Affairs 1861-06; in 1809 he was sent as ambassador to Madrid, and
from 1877 till 1880 represented England at Constantinople, where his
philo-Turkish sympathies provoked much comment; he was a noted linguist
(1817-1894).


LAZZARONI, an indolent class of waifs under a chief who used to
lounge about Naples, and proved formidable in periods of revolution; they
subsisted partly by service as messengers, porters, &c., and partly as
beggars.


LEAGUE AND COVENANT, SOLEMN. See COVENANT.


LEAGUE, THE, specially a coalition organised in 1576 by the Duke of
Guise to suppress the Reformed religion in France by denying civil and
religious liberty to the Huguenots, and specially to prevent the
accession of Henry IV. as a Protestant to the throne.


LEAMINGTON (27), a fashionable Warwickshire watering-place of modern
date on the Learn, 15 m. SE. of Birmingham. It has chalybeate, saline,
and sulphurous springs, to which visitors have gathered since the end of
18th century; brewing and kitchen-range making are carried on; Leamington
and Warwick return one member of Parliament.


LEANDER. See HERO.


LEANING TOWER, specially a campanile of white marble at Pisa, in
Italy, 178 ft. in height, and which leans 14 ft. off the perpendicular.


LEAR, a legendary British king, the hero of one of Shakespeare's
tragedies, the victim of the unnatural conduct of two of his daughters.


LEAR, EDWARD, English painter, and author of "Book of Nonsense,"
composed for the grandchildren of the Earl of Derby in 1848, and after of
"More Nonsense Rhymes," which were widely popular with young people;
painted landscapes in Greece and Asia Minor (1812-1888).


LEATHER STOCKING, NATTY, a character in Cooper's novel the
"Pioneers," "a melodious synopsis of man and nature in the West."


LEATHES, STANLEY, prebendary of St Paul's, born in Bucks; has held
several clerical appointments; is professor of Hebrew in King's College,
London, and is author of a number of works bearing on Christianity; _b_.
1830.


LEBANON (i. e. "the White Mountain"), a range on the northern
border of Palestine, which rises to a height of 10,000 ft., and is
divided into two by a valley, the ancient Coele-Syria, which the Leontes
and Orontes water, the eastern range being called Anti-Lebanon.


LE BRUN, CHARLES, a celebrated French painter, born in Paris;
studied in Rome, settled in Paris, and patronised by Colbert; he
exercised for about 40 years a great influence on the art of the period;
he decorated Versailles and the Louvre, but with the death of his patron
he sunk into obscurity and pined and died (1619-1690).


LECHLER, GOTTHARD VICTOR, theologian, born in Wuertemberg; was
professor at Leipzig; wrote "History of Deism," "Life of Wiclif," and
"Apostolic and Post-Apostolic Times" (1811-1888).


LECKY, WILLIAM EDWARD HARTPOLE, historian and suggestive writer,
born near Dublin; represents Dublin University in Parliament; is the
author of "Leaders of Public Opinion," 1861; "The Rise and Influence of
the Spirit of Rationalism in Europe," 1865; the "History of European
Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne," 1869; and the "History of the
Eighteenth Century," 1878-90; _b_. 1838.


LECLAIRE, EDME-JEAN, French economist, and experimentalist in the
matter of the union of capital and labour; adopted the system of
profit-sharing in 1842, with important results (1801-1872).


LE CLERC, JOHN, otherwise Johannes Clericus, liberal Swiss
theologian and controversialist, born at Geneva; studied philosophy and
theology there, and at Paris and London; became professor in the
Remonstrant Seminary in Amsterdam in 1684, but lost his speech in 1728;
his voluminous writings include commentaries on the whole Bible, which
contained opinions on the authorship and composition of the Pentateuch,
and the inspiration of the wisdom books, then startling but since much in
favour (1657-1736).


LECONTE DE LISLE, a French poet, a Creole, born in the Isle of
Bourbon, author of "Poesies Barbares" and "Poesies Antiques," and
translator of Homer, Sophocles, Theocrates, and other classics; his
translations are wonderfully faithful to the originals (1820-1894).


LECTERN, a stand with a desk for a book from which the service is
read in a church.


LEDA, in the Greek mythology the wife of the Spartan king Tyndareus,
who was visited by Zeus in the form of a swan and became the mother of
Castor and Pollux; was frequently the subject of ancient art.


LEDRU-ROLLIN, ALEXANDRA AUGUSTE, a French democrat, born near Paris;
called to the bar in 1830; became a leader of the democratic movement in
the reign of Louis Philippe, and gained the title of the "Tribune of the
Revolution"; in 1848 he became a member of the Provisional Government;
was Minister of the Interior; secured for France the privilege of
universal suffrage; his opposition to Louis Napoleon obliged him to seek
refuge in England, where he took part in a general democratic movement,
and an amnesty being granted, he returned to France in 1870; was elected
to the Assembly, but his power was gone; died suddenly (1807-1874).


LEE, ROBERT EDWARD, Confederate general in the American Civil War,
born at Stratford, Virginia, son of a soldier of old and distinguished
family, and educated at West Point; became captain of Engineers in 1838;
he distinguished himself in the Mexican War of 1846; was from 1852 till
1855 head of the U.S. Military Academy; was in active service again in
Texas 1855-59 as an officer of Cavalry; on the secession of the Southern
States, though disapproving of the war, deeming Virginia to have a claim
before the Union to his loyalty, resigned his commission, and was
appointed general, third in rank, by the Confederate Congress of
Virginia, 1861; after various services he succeeded General Johnston in
command of the army at Richmond; won the seven days' battle against
M'Clellan; invaded Maryland and Pennsylvania, but was forced to surrender
with 28,000 men to Grant at Appomatox, in Virginia, April 9, 1865;
forfeiting his estates he became President of the Washington University
(since called Washington and Lee), Lexington, Virginia, which post he
held till his death; he was a man of devout religious faith, a high sense
of duty, great courage and ability as a soldier (1807-1870).


LEE, ROBERT, a Scottish theologian, born at Tweedmouth; was minister
of Old Greyfriars, Edinburgh, and professor of Biblical Criticism in the
University; reformed the Presbyterian worship to some extent on the
Anglican model, and suffered no small persecution at the hands of the
conservative party in the Church for these innovations; his proclivities
otherwise were rationalistic (1804-1868).


LEE, SAMUEL, English Orientalist, born in Shropshire; professor in
Cambridge first of Arabic and then of Hebrew; was the author of a Hebrew
grammar and lexicon, and a translation of the Book of Job (1783-1852).


LEECH, JOHN, English artist, born in London; was educated at the
Charterhouse, and a fellow pupil there of Thackeray's; displayed early a
turn for caricature; produced a set of illustrations for the "Ingoldsby
Legends"; joined the staff of _Punch_ in 1844, and remained a member of
it till his death; here he distinguished himself by his cartoons and his
humorous illustrations of scenes and characters of English life and
society, and showed himself an artist more than a caricaturist; his work
was not limited to _Punch_; he contributed illustrations also to _Once a
Week_, the _Illustrated London News_, and other publications of the time
(1817-1864).


LEEDS (368), fifth city in England, largest in Yorkshire, on the
Aire, 25 m. SW. of York, in the West Riding; has been noted for its
textile industry since the 16th century, now its woollen manufactures of
all kinds are the largest in England, and besides other industries, there
are very large manufactures of ready-made clothing, leather, boots and
shoes, and iron. There are many fine buildings: St. Peter's Church is the
largest; St. John's, consecrated in 1634, still retains the fittings of a
"Laudean" church. There is a magnificent infirmary, a grammar-school, and
art-gallery. The Yorkshire College is affiliated with Victoria
University. Dr. Priestley was a native. A Parliamentary borough only
since 1832, it now returns five members.


LEEDS, THOMAS OSBORNE, DUKE OF, English statesman, son of a
Yorkshire baronet, after the Restoration entered Parliament as member for
York and supporter of King and Church; his advance was rapid till he was
Lord High Treasurer and Earl of Danby in 1674; constantly intriguing, he
was impeached by the Commons in 1678, and kept for five years in the
Tower without trial; returning to public life he opposed James II.'s
policy regarding the Church, and joined in the movement which set William
of Orange on the English throne; appointed President of the Council, he
was again guilty of corrupt practices; he became Duke of Leeds in 1694,
but in 1695 was impeached a second time, and though he again escaped
condemnation he never regained power (1631-1712).


LEEUWENHOEK, ANTON VAN, an early microscopist, born at Delft; the
instrument he used was of his own construction, but it was the means of
his arriving at important discoveries, one of the most so that of
capillary circulation; stoutly opposed the theory of spontaneous
generation (1632-1673).


LEFORT, FRANCOIS JACOB, Russian officer, born in Geneva, son of a
merchant; after serving in France and Holland, in 1675 entered the
service and gained the favour of Peter the Great, organised the army on
the French model, laid the foundation of a navy, and died
commander-in-chief both of the land forces and the navy (1656-1699).


LEFT, THE, the opposition in a Continental Legislative Assembly, as
sitting on the left of the chair; also the liberal section of a
philosophical school.


LEGALISM, adherence to the strict letter of the law often in
disregard of the spirit and even in defiance of it.


LE GALLIENNE, RICHARD, poet, journalist, and critic, born in
Liverpool, of a Guernsey family; has been connected with and contributed
to several London journals; is author of "My Lady's Sonnets," "George
Meredith: some Characteristics," "The Religion of a Literary Man," &c.;
is successful as a lecturer as well as a litterateur; _b_. 1866.


LEGATE, the title of the Pope's representative or ambassador; in
medieval times this office was attached to certain bishoprics, and the
bishops were styled _legati nati;_ besides these there were _legati a
latere_, generally cardinals, and _legati missi_, or nuncios specially
appointed; legates used to claim full papal jurisdiction within their
provinces, which caused many disputes; now they are ambassadors for
spiritual purposes at Roman Catholic Courts--Vienna, Muenich, Madrid,
Lisbon, and Paris--and do not interfere with the authority of the
bishops.


LEGENDRE, ADRIEN MARIE, brilliant French mathematician, contemporary
of Lagrange and Laplace, born at Toulouse; obtained the professorship of
Mathematics in the Military School at Paris, and was elected to the
Academy of Sciences in 1783; he was one of the commissioners to determine
the length of the metre, and held many posts under the Republic and the
Empire; among many works his best known is the "Elements of Geometry"
(1794), translated into English by Carlyle (1752-1833).


LEGGE, JAMES, a Chinese scholar, born in Huntly, Aberdeenshire;
studied at King's College, Aberdeen; was sent out as missionary to the
Chinese by the London Missionary Society in 1839, laboured for 30 years
at Hong-Kong, and became professor of the Chinese Language and Literature
at Oxford in 1876; edited with a translation and notes the Chinese
classics, the "four _Shu_," and the "five _King_," and gave lectures on
the religions of China as compared with Christianity; _b_. 1815.


LEGHORN (106), a flourishing Italian seaport, on the W. coast, 60 m.
from Florence; is a fine city, with broad streets and many canals; its
exports include wine, silk, oil, marble, and straw hats; it imports
spirits, sugar, and machinery; it does a large and increasing coasting
trade, and manufactures coral ornaments; its prosperity dates from the
15th century; it was a free port till 1868.


LEGION, among the ancient Romans a body of soldiers consisting of
three lines, the _hastati_, the _principes_, and the _triarii_, ranged in
order of battle one behind the other, each divided into ten maniples, and
the whole numbering from 4000 to 6000 men; to each legion was attached
six military tribunes, who commanded in rotation, each for two months;
under Marius the three lines were amalgamated, and the whole divided into
ten cohorts of three maniples each; under the original arrangement the
_hastati_ were young or untrained men, the _principes_ men in their full
manhood, and the _triarii_ veterans.


LEGION OF HONOUR, an order of merit instituted on republican
principles on May 10, 1802, by Bonaparte when First Consul in recompense
of civil and military services to the country; it originally consisted of
four classes, but now comprehends five: grand crosses, grand officers,
commanders, officers, and chevaliers, each, of military or naval men,
with pensions on a descending scale and all for life; their badge, a
white star of five rays, bearing on the obverse an image of the republic
and on the reverse two tricolor flags.


LEGITIMISTS, a name given to supporters of the Bourbon dynasty in
France as opposed to the Orleanists, who supported the claims of Louis
Philippe.


LEIBNITZ, German philosopher, mathematician, and man of affairs,
born in Leipzig; studied law and took the degree of Doctor of Laws at
Altorf; spent a good part of his life at courts, visited Paris and London
and formed a friendship with the savans in both cities, and finally
settled in Hanover, where he moved much in the circle of the Electress
Sophia and her daughter Sophia Charlotte, the Prussian Queen, whom he
entertained with his philosophy of the "infinitely little," as it has
been called; he discovered with Newton the basis of the differential
calculus, and concocted the system of monods (his "Monodology"), between
which and the soul, he taught, there existed a "pre-established harmony,"
issuing in the cosmos; he was an optimist, and had for his motto the
oft-quoted phrase, "Everything is for the best in the best of possible
worlds"; his principal works in philosophy are his "Theodicee," written
at the instance of Sophia Charlotte and in refutation of Bayle, and his
"Monodologie," written on the suggestion of Prince Eugene (1646-1716).


LEICESTER (209), county town of Leicestershire, on the Soar, 40 m.
E. of Birmingham; is an ancient town, with several historic buildings;
has grown rapidly of late owing to its hosiery, boot and shoe, and
iron-founding industries; it sends two members to Parliament.


LEICESTER, ROBERT DUDLEY, EARL OF, Queen Elizabeth's favourite,
fifth son of the Duke of Northumberland; won the queen's favour by his
handsome appearance and courtly address; received many offices and
honours, and on the death, under suspicious circumstances, of his
Countess, Amy Robsart, aspired to her hand; still favoured, in spite of
his unpopularity in the country, he was proposed as husband to Mary,
Queen of Scots, in 1563; he married the dowager Lady Sheffield in 1573,
and afterwards bigamously the Countess of Essex; after a short term of
disfavour he was appointed commander in the Netherlands, and subsequently
at Tilbury Fort, but proved an incapable soldier (1532-1588).


LEICESTERSHIRE (374), English midland county, bounded by Nottingham,
Lincoln, Rutland, Northampton, Warwick, and Derby shires; is an
undulating upland watered by the Soar, and mostly under pasture.
Leicester cattle and sheep are noted, and its Stilton cheeses. There are
coal deposits and granite and slate quarries in the N. The chief towns
are Leicester, the county town, Loughborough, and Hinckley.


LEIGH, AURORA, the heroine of Mrs. Browning's poem of the same name.
She styled it "a novel in verse," and wrote of it, it is "the most mature
of my works, and the one into which my highest convictions upon Life and
Art have entered."


LEIGHTON, FREDERICK, LORD, eminent English artist, born at
Scarborough; studied in the chief art-centres of the Continent; his first
exhibit at the Royal Academy being "Cimabue's Madonna carried in
Procession through Florence," which was followed by a numerous array of
others of classic merit, and showing the scholar as well as the artist;
he distinguished himself in sculpture as well as painting, and died
President of the Royal Academy after being ennobled (1830-1897).


LEIGHTON, ROBERT, a Scottish theologian, the son of a Puritan
clergyman in London, who wrote a book against prelacy, and suffered
cruelly at the hands of Laud in consequence; studied at Edinburgh;
entered the Church, and became Presbyterian minister at Newbattle in
1641, but resigned in 1653; was made Principal of Edinburgh University;
reluctantly consented to accept a bishopric, and chose the diocese of
Dunblane, but declined all lordship connected with the office; was for a
time archbishop of Glasgow; retired to England in 1674, and lived ten
years afterwards with a widowed sister in Sussex; he was a most saintly
man, and long revered as such by the Scottish people; his writings, which
are highly imaginative, were much admired by Coleridge (1611-1684).


LEIOTRICHI, a primitive race of people distinguished by their smooth
hair.


LEIPZIG (357), in the W. of Saxony, and largest city of that
kingdom; is the third city in Germany. The old portion is narrow and
quaint, with historic buildings; the new is well built, with splendid
edifices. It is the seat of the supreme court of the Empire, of an old
university which has a magnificent library and well-equipped medical
school, and of one of the finest conservatories of music in Europe. Its
chief trade is in books, furs, leather, and cloth, and its chief
industries type-founding and pianoforte-making. It was the birthplace of
Leibnitz and Wagner, and is associated also with Bach and Mendelssohn.


LEITH (68), chief seaport in E. of Scotland, on the Forth,
contiguous to Edinburgh and the port of it; is an old, unattractive, but
busy town. The harbour comprises five docks. The imports are corn, flour,
wines, sugar, and fruit; the exports, coal, iron, paraffin, and whisky.
There are shipbuilding and engineering works, breweries, distilleries,
and other industries. Leith Fort, between the town and Newhaven, is the
head-quarters of the artillery for Scotland.


LEITHA, an Austrian stream which flows NE. and falls into the Danube
E. of Vienna; divides Cis-Leithan from Trans-Leithan.


LELAND, CHARLES, an American writer, born at Philadelphia; bred to
the bar, but left law for literature, and contributed to the journals;
has taken interest in and written on the industrial arts, social science,
folk-lore, the gypsies, &c.; his works are numerous, and of a humorous or
burlesque character, and include "The Poetry and Mystery of Dreams," "The
Legends of Birds," "Hans Breitmann's Ballads," &c.; _b_. 1824.


LELAND, JOHN, English antiquary, born in London; travelled much on
the Continent and amassed vast learning; held a commission from Henry
VIII. to examine the antiquities and libraries of England, in fulfilment
of which charge he spent six years in collecting a world of things that
would otherwise have been lost, and the rest of his life, till he went
insane, in arranging them (1506-1552).


LELAND, JOHN, a Nonconformist minister, born in Wigan; wrote chiefly
in defence of Christianity against the attacks of the Deists (1691-1766).


LELY, SIR PETER, a painter, born in Westphalia; settled in London;
took to portrait-painting, and was patronised by Charles I. and II., as
well as by Cromwell; he painted the portraits of his patrons, and the
beauties of Charles II.'s court; was Vandyck's successor (1618-1680).


LEMAN LAKE, the LAKE OF GENEVA (q. v.).


LEMBERG (128), the capital of Austrian Galicia, from its central
position and ready communication with rivers and railways, enjoys an
extensive trade; Polish is the prevailing language; there is a
flourishing university, and of the population 40,000 are Jews.


LEMMING RAT, a rodent, which "travelling in myriads seawards from
the hills," as seen in Norway, "turns not to the right or the left, eats
its way through whatever will eat, and climbs over whatever will not eat,
and perishes before reaching the sea, its consistent rigidly straight
journey, a journey nowhither." See the Application in the "Latter
Pamphlet," No. 6.


LEMNOS (30), an island plateau in the AEgean Sea, 30 m. SW. of the
Dardanelles, Turkish since 1657; produces corn, wine, and tobacco, and is
a place of exile for Turkish prisoners; the population is mostly Greek;
chief town Kastro (3), on the W. coast.


LEMON, MARK, editor of _Punch_ from 1843 to his death, born in
London; began his career as a dramatist, story-teller, and song-writer,
writing 60 pieces for the stage and 100 songs (1809-1870).


LEM`URES, a name given by the Romans to the spirits of the dead, and
who, such of them as are ghosts of the wicked, wander about at night as
spectres, and tormented themselves, torment and frighten the living.


LENCLOS, NINON DE, a woman celebrated for wit and beauty, born in
Paris, whose salon in the city was frequented by all the notable
personages of the period; she was a woman of superior mental endowments
as well as polished manners, but of loose morality and want of heart
(1616-1705).


LENNEP, JACOB VAN, a Dutch dramatist and novelist, born at
Amsterdam; bred to the bar and practised as a lawyer; was a devoted
student of English literature, and executed translations from English
poets; was called by his countrymen the Walter Scott of Holland
(1802-1868).


LENNOX, an ancient district of Scotland that included Dumbartonshire
and part of Stirlingshire.


LENORE, the heroine of a celebrated ballad by Buerger, the German
lyric poet, a maiden whose lover dies and whose spectre appears to her on
horseback and carries her off mounted behind him.


LENORMANT, FRANCOIS, a distinguished archaeologist, born at Paris, a
man of genius and of vast learning; his chief works "Manuel d'Histoire
Ancienne de l'Orient," "Lettres Assyriologues," "Les Premieres
Civilisations," and "Les Sciences Occultes en Asie" (1837-1883).


LENS, a piece of glass adapted as convex or concave so as to change
the direction of the rays of light passing through it and magnify or
diminish the apparent size of an object.


LENT, a period of fasting previous to Easter, at first lasting only
40 hours, was gradually extended to three, four, or six days, then
different Churches extended it to three and six: weeks; in the 6th
century Gregory the Great fixed it for the West at 40 days from Ash
Wednesday to Easter, excluding Sundays; in the Eastern Church it begins
on the Monday after quinquagesima and excludes both Saturdays and
Sundays; in the Anglican Church the season is marked by special services,
but the fast is not rigidly kept.


LENTHALL, WILLIAM, Speaker of the Long Parliament; is famous for his
answer to the demand of Charles to point out to him five members he had
come to arrest, "May it please your Majesty," said he, failing on his
knees, "I have neither eyes to see nor tongue to speak but as the House
directs me" (1591-1662).


LEO, the fifth sign of the zodiac, which the sun enters on July 22.


LEO, the name of six emperors of the East, of which the chief was
Leo III., surnamed the Isaurian, born in Isauria; raised to the imperial
throne by the army, defeated by sea and land the Saracens who threatened
Constantinople; ruled peacefully for nine years, when he headed the
ICONOCLAST MOVEMENT (Q. V.), which provoked hostility and led
to the revolt of Italy from the Greek empire; _d_. 741.


LEO, the names of 13 popes: L. I., ST., Pope from 410 to 461;
L. II., ST., pope from 682 to 683; L. III., Pope from 795 to
816; L. IV., pope from 847 to 855; L. V., Pope in 903; L.
VI., Pope from 928 to 929; L. VII., Pope from 936 to 939; L.
VIII., Pope from 963 to 965; L. IX., ST., Pope from 1049 to
1054; L. X., pope from 1513 to 1521; L. XI., Pope in 1605; L.
XII., Pope from 1823 to 1829; L. XIII., Pope since 1878. Of
these only the following deserve mention:--


LEO I., saint, surnamed the GREAT; was distinguished for his
zeal against heretics, presided at two councils, and persuaded Attila to
retire from Rome on his invasion of Italy, as he persuaded Genseric four
years later to moderate the outrages of his troops in the city; his
letters are in evidence of the jurisdiction of the Roman over the
universal Church. Festival, Nov. 10.


LEO III., proclaimed Charlemagne emperor of the West in 800; driven
in 799 from the papal chair by a conspiracy, he was reinstated by
Charlemagne, who next year visited the city and was crowned by him
emperor.


LEO IX., saint; was elected at the Diet of Worms in 1048, welcomed
at Rome, and applied himself zealously to the reform of Church
discipline; being defeated in the field by Guiscard, suffered a 10 years'
imprisonment, fell ill and died.


LEO X., Giovanni de' Medici, son of Lorenzo the Magnificent,
sovereign of Florence; was distinguished as a patron of art, science, and
letters, and as occupant of the chair of St. Peter at the outbreak of the
Reformation, and as by his issue of indulgences for the replenishment of
his treasure provoking the movement and rousing the ire of Luther, which
set the rest of Europe on fire.


LEO XIII., 257th Pope of Rome, born at Carpineto; distinguished at
college in mathematics, physics, and philosophy; took holy orders in
1837, was nuncio to Belgium in 1843, became bishop of Perugia in 1846,
cardinal 1853, and Pope in 1878; holds to his rights as Pope both secular
and spiritual; believes in the Catholic Church as the only regenerator of
society, and hails every show of encroach it makes on the domain of
Protestantism as promise of its universal restoration; _b_. 1810.


LEON, an ancient kingdom in the NE. of Spain, united with Castile in
1230, with a capital of the same name 256 m. NW. of Madrid. Also the name
of a city in Nicaragua and another in Mexico.


LEONARDO DA VINCI, celebrated painter and sculptor of the Florentine
school, born at Vinci in the Val d'Arno; showed early a wonderful
aptitude for art; studied under Andrea del Verrocchio, but so surpassed
him in his work as to drive him to renounce the painter's art; his great
work, executed by him at Milan, was the famous picture of the "Last
Supper," which he painted in oil about 1497 on the wall of the refectory
of the Dominican convent of the Madonna delle Grazie; it perished from
the dampness of the wall almost as soon as it was finished, but happily
copies were taken of it before decay had ruined it; besides, Leonardo did
in 1503 at Florence the famous cartoon of the Battle of the Standard; he
was a man of imposing personal appearance, of very wide range of ability,
and distinguished himself in engineering as well as art; he wrote a
"Treatise on Painting," which has been widely translated (1452-1519).


LEONIDAS, king of Sparta from 491 to 480 B.C.; opposed Xerxes, the
Persian, who threatened Greece with a large army, and kept him at bay at
the Pass of Thermopylae with 300 Spartans and 5000 auxiliaries till he was
betrayed by EPHIALTES (q. v.), when he and his 300 threw
themselves valiantly on the large host, and perished fighting to the last
man.


LEONIDS, meteors which descend in showers during November in certain
years, their chief centre being the constellation Leo.


LEOPARDI, GIACOMO, modern Italian poet, born near Ancona; a
precocious genius; an omnivorous reader as a boy, and devoted to
literature; of a weakly constitution, he became a confirmed invalid, and
died suddenly; had sceptical leanings; wrote lyrics inspired by a certain
sombre melancholy (1788-1837).


LEOPOLD I., king of the Belgians, son of the Duke of Saxe-Coburg; in
his youth served in the Russian army; visited England in 1815, and
married Princess Charlotte, who died two years later; he declined the
throne of Greece in 1830, but accepted that of the Belgians in 1831, and
proved a wise, firm, constitutional sovereign; in 1832 he married the
French princess Louise; he was succeeded by his son Leopold II.
(1790-1865).


LEOPOLD II., king of the Belgians, born at Brussels, son and
successor of Leopold I.; has travelled much in Europe and Asia Minor;
founded, and is now ruler of, the Congo Free State; married in 1853 the
Archduchess Maria of Austria, by whom he has had three daughters; _b_.
1835.


LEPSIUS, KARL RICHARD, a celebrated Egyptologist, born in Prussian
Saxony; took at first to the study of philology under Bopp, but early
devoted himself to the study of the antiquities of Egypt; headed in 1842
an expedition of research among the monuments under the king of Prussia,
which occupied five years, and was fertile in important results, among
others the production of a work in 12 vols. on the subject entitled
"Denkmaeleraus Egypten und Ethiopien," issued between 1849 and 1860; he
was the author also of works on philology (1810-1884).


LERNAEAN HYDRA, a monster with nine heads, one of them immortal, that
infested a swamp near Lernae, and which Hercules was required to slay as
one of his twelve labours, only as often as he cut off one head two grew
on, but with the assistance of Iolcus his servant he singed off the eight
mortal ones, cut down the ninth, and buried it under a huge rock.


LERWICK (31), the capital of Shetland, on the E. of Mainland;
fishing and knitting the chief industries.


LE SAGE, ALAIN RENE, French dramatist and novelist, born at Sarzeau,
in Brittany; educated at a Jesuit school at Vannes; went to Paris in
1692; studied the Spanish language and literature, and produced
translations of Spanish works and imitations; some of his dramas attained
great popularity, and one in particular, the "Turcaret," a satire on the
time generally, and not merely, as represented, on financiers of the
period, gave offence; but the works by which he is best known are his
novels "Le Diable Boiteux" and "Gil Blas," his masterpiece (1668-1747).


LESBOS (36), modern name Mytilene, a mountainous island, the largest
on the Asia Minor coast, 10 m. off shore and 20 m. N. of the Gulf of
Symrna; has a delightful climate, disturbed by earthquakes, fertile soil,
and produces fine olive-oil. In ancient Greek days it was a cradle of
literature, the home of Sappho, and famous for its wine; Turkish since
1462, its population is mostly Greek; chief town Castro (12), on the E.
coast.


LESE-MAJESTY, name given to a crime against the sovereign.


LESLIE, name of a Scottish family distinguished in Scottish history
as well as for military service in foreign parts.


LESLIE, CHARLES, non-juring controversial divine, born in Dublin,
wrote "A Short and Easy Method with the Jews," and another with the
Deists (1650-1722).


LESLIE, SIR JOHN, natural philosopher and professor, born at Largo,
Fifeshire; educated at St. Andrews and Edinburgh University; visited
America in 1788, and returned to London 1790; for fifteen years he was
engaged in scientific investigation, invented several instruments, and
published his "Inquiry into the Nature of Heat," for which he received
the Rumford Medal from the Royal Society; appointed to the chair of
Mathematics in Edinburgh in 1805, he was transferred to that of Natural
Philosophy in 1819; continued his researches and inventions, and shortly
before his death was knighted (1766-1832).


LESPINASSE, a French lady, born in Lyons, famous for her wit, to
whom D'Alembert was much attached, and the centre of a learned circle in
Paris in her time (1731-1776).


LESSEPS, FERDINAND DE, French diplomatist, born at Versailles;
conceived the scheme of connecting the Red Sea with the Mediterranean in
1854, and saw it finished as the Suez Canal in 1869; projected a similar
scheme for a canal at Panama, but it ended in failure, disgrace, and ruin
to the projectors as well as others (1805-1894).


LESSING, GOTTHOLD EPHRAIM, a German author, and founder of modern
German literature, born at Kamenz, Saxony, son of the pastor there; sent
to study theology at Leipzig, studied hard; conceived a passion for the
stage; wrote plays and did criticisms; wrote an essay on Pope; took
English authors as his models, revolted against those of France; made it
his aim to inaugurate or rather revive a purely German literature, and
produced examples regarded as classics to this day; his principal dramas,
all conceived on the soil, are "Miss Sara Sampson," "Mina von Barnhelm,"
"Emilia Galotti," and "Nathan der Weise," and his principal prose works
are his "Fables" and "Laocoon," a critical work on art still in high
repute (1729-1781).


L'ESTRANGE, SIR ROGER, a zealous Royalist, born in Norfolk; was for
his zeal in the royal cause committed to prison; having escaped, he was
allowed to live in retirement under Cromwell, but woke up a vigorous
pamphleteer and journalist in the old interest at the Restoration,
"wounding his Whig foes very sorely, and making them wince"; he
translated Josephus, Cicero's "Offices," Seneca's "Morals," the
"Colloquies" of Erasmus, and Quevedo's "Visions," his most popular work
(1616-1704).


LETHE (i. e. oblivion), in the Greek mythology a stream in the
nether world, a draught of the waters of which, generally extended to the
ghosts of the dead on their entrance into Pluto's kingdom, obliterated
all recollection of the past and its sorrows.


LETO (i. e. the hidden one), one of the Titan brood, who became by
Zeus the mother of Apollo and Artemis, and for whose confinement, in her
persecution by Hera, Poseidon by a stroke of his trident fixed the till
then floating island of Delos to the sea-bottom.


LETTER OF MARQUE, a commission to the captain of a merchant ship or
a privateer to make reprisals on an enemy's ships or property.


LETTERS PATENT, a document under seal of the government granting
some special privilege to a person.


LETTRES DE CACHET (i. e. sealed letters), warrants of
imprisonment, issued prior to the Revolution, sealed with the private
seal of the king, in contradistinction from _lettres patentees_, which
were sealed by the Great Seal of the kingdom. See CACHET, LETTRE
DE.


LEUCIPPUS, a Greek philosopher of the 6th century B.C., the founder
of the Atomic theory of things, of which DEMOCRITUS (q. v.) was
the chief expounder.


LEUCTRA, a village in Boeotia, to the S. of Thebes, where in 371
B.C. Epaminondas and his Thebans overthrew the ascendency of Sparta.


LEUTHEN, a village in the W. of Breslau, in Silesia, where Frederick
the Great defeated the Austrians with great loss in 1757.


LEVANA, the title of a book by Jean Paul on the education of
children; title from the name of a Roman goddess, the protectress of
foundlings.


LEVANT (i. e. the Rising), a name given to the E. of the
Mediterranean and the regions adjoining by the western peoples of the
Mediterranean.


LEVEE, a morning reception held by the sovereign or some one of high
rank.


LEVELLERS, a party of violent red-hot Republicans, led on by John
Lilburne, who appeared in the time of the Commonwealth, but were
suppressed by Cromwell.


LEVER, CHARLES JAMES, a novelist, born at Dublin, was by profession
a physician; author of a numerous series of Irish stories written in a
rollicking humour, "Harry Lorrequer" and "Charles O'Malley" among the
chief; was a contributor to and for some time editor of _Dublin
University Magazine_; held ultimately various consular appointments
abroad, and after that wrote with success in a more sober style
(1806-1872).


LEVERRIER, URBAN JEAN JOSEPH, French astronomer, born at St. Lo;
distinguished in chemistry before he devoted himself to astronomy; rose
to eminence in the latter science by a paper on the variations in the
orbits of the planets, and was led to the discovery of the planet Neptune
from perturbations in the orbit of the planet Uranus; he indicated the
spot where the planet would be found, and it was actually discovered a
few days after by Galle at Berlin (1811-1877).


LEVI, LEON, commercial economist, born at Ancona; settled in England
and was naturalised; drew attention to the want of commercial
organisation, and to whose pleading the first chamber of commerce, that
of Liverpool, owes its existence; became professor of Commercial Law in
King's College, London (1821-1888).


LEVIRITE LAW, a law among the Jews which ordained if a husband died
without issue that his brother should take his widow to wife and raise up
seed to him (Deut. xxv. 5-10).


LEVITES, a body of men divided into courses, the servants of the
priests in the worship of the Temple of Jerusalem; they were not
permitted to enter the sanctuary or serve at the altar, their duties
being limited to keeping watch over the Temple, slaying the victims, and
making other preparations for the sacred services.


LEVITICAL DEGREES, relationships that preclude marriage, so called
as presumably fixed by the Levitical priesthood of the Jews.


LEVITICUS, the third book of the Pentateuch, so called as containing
the laws and ordinances appointed to regulate the services of the
sanctuary as conducted by a priesthood of the tribe of Levi, the
narrative portion of it recording the consecration of Aaron and his sons,
the death of Nadab and Abihu, and the stoning of the blasphemer,
embracing a period of only one year, and the legislation of it no longer
issuing from Mount Sinai, but from the door of the Tabernacle.


LEWALD, FANNY, an eminent German novelist, born at Koenigsberg, of
Jewish parents; professed Christianity and was married to Adolf Stahr;
was a realist in art and a zealous woman's rights advocate (1811-1889).


LEWES (11), the county town of Sussex, finely situated on a slope of
the South Downs, 10 m. NE. of Brighton; was the scene of a victory of
Simon de Montfort in 1264 over the forces of Henry III.; has a trade in
corn and malt, and tanneries.


LEWES, GEORGE HENRY, a versatile man of letters, born in London, the
son of an actor; wrote a "Biographical History of Philosophy" from the
Positivist standpoint, published originally in 1845, and a "Life of
Goethe" in 1855, "Seaside Studies," "Problems of Life and Mind," &c., and
edited the _Fortnightly Review_; he did much to popularise both science
and philosophy; though a married man with children, formed a connection
with George Eliot, and died in her house (1817-1878).


LEWIS, SIR GEORGE CORNWALL, English statesman and political
philosopher, born in London; held several important posts under and in
the governments of the day; wrote on "Early Roman History," "The
Influence of Authority on Matters of Opinion," "The Best Form of
Government," "Ancient Astronomy," &c. (1806-1863).


LEWIS, MATTHEW GREGORY, romancer, familiarly known as Monk Lewis
from the name of his principal novel, the "Monk," which was written,
along with others, in Mrs. Radcliffe's vein and immensely popular, and
literally swarmed with ghosts and demons (1773-1818).


LEYDEN, one of the chief towns of Holland and characteristically
Dutch, 15 m. NW. of The Hague, with a famous university founded by the
Prince of Orange in 1576, containing the richest natural history museum
in the world; it is noted for the bravery and power of endurance of its
inhabitants, manifest for a whole year (1573-74) during the War of
Independence.


LEYDEN, JOHN, poet and Orientalist, born in Denholm, son of a
shepherd; bred for the Church, his genius and abilities attracted the
notice of influential people; was introduced to Scott, and assisted him
in his "Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border"; went to India as a military
surgeon; studied and prelected on the native dialects; became a judge in
Calcutta; died of fever (1775-1811).


LEYDEN, JOHN OF, leader of the Anabaptists in Muenster, born in The
Hague; beset with his followers, who regarded him as a prophet, in
Muenster, he was taken alive after a siege of six months and tortured to
death in 1536.


LEYDEN, LUCAS VAN, an eminent early Dutch painter and engraver, born
in Leyden; succeeded in every branch of painting, and, like Duerer,
engraved his own pictures; his works are highly valued, and some of them
very rare; he spent his means in high living and died young, only 39
(1494-1533).


LEYDEN JAR, an electric condenser, a cylindrical glass bottle lined
inside and outside with metal to within a short distance from the top,
while a brass rod connected with the inside coating extends upward
through a wooden stopper terminating in a knob.


LEYS SCHOOL, the Cambridge school founded in 1875 to supply under
unsectarian religious influences a high-class education, the founders of
it having been chiefly members of the Methodist body.


LHASSA (seat of the gods) (50), the capital of Thibet, and the
metropolis of the Buddhist world in the Chinese Empire, stands in the
middle of a plain 11,900 ft. above the sea-level; on a hill in the NW. of
the centre of the city, a conical hill called Potala, amid temples and
palaces, is the residence of the Grand Lama; the monasteries are 15 in
number, and the priests 20,000, and it is the centre of the caravan
trade.


L'HOPITAL. See HOPITAL, MICHEL DE L'.


LI, a Chinese mile, equal to one-third of an English mile.


LIA-FAIL, the stone of destiny on which the Irish kings used to be
crowned, which was at length removed to Scone, in Perthshire, and is now
in Westminster under the coronation chair, having been removed thither by
Edward I.


LIBERALISM, MODERN, "practically summed up" by Ruskin, in "the
denial or neglect of the quality and intrinsic worth in things, the
incapacity of discerning or refusal to discern worth and unworth in
anything, and least of all in man."


LIBERAL-UNIONIST, one of the Liberal party in English politics,
which in 1886 quitted the Liberal ranks and joined the Conservative party
in opposition to the Home Rule policy of Mr. Gladstone.


LIBERATIONIST, one who advocates the emancipation of the Church from
State control.


LIBERIA (1,500), a negro republic on the Grain Coast of Africa,
founded in 1822 by American philanthropists as a settlement for freedmen,
with a constitution after the model of the United States.


LIBERTY, FRATERNITY, AND EQUALITY, the trinity of modern democracy,
and which first found expression as a political creed in the French
Revolution, of which the first term is now held to require definition,
the second to have only a sentimental basis, and the third to be in
violation of the fact of things; universal suffrage is the expression of
it politically.


LIBRATION, the name given to certain apparent movements in the moon
as if it swayed like a balance both in latitude and longitude in its
revolution round the earth.


LIBRI-CARRUCCI, COUNT, Italian mathematician; professor at Pisa, but
obliged to resign for his liberal opinions and take refuge in France,
where he was made professor at the Sorbonne, was a kleptomaniac in the
matter of books (1803-1869).


LIBYA, a name by the early geographers to the territory in Africa
which lay between Egypt, Ethiopia, and the shores of the Atlantic.


LICHFIELD (8), ancient ecclesiastical town in Staffordshire, 15 m.
SE. of Stafford, an episcopal see since 656, with a cathedral in Early
English style, recently completely restored; has an ancient grammar
school, a museum, and school of art; the birthplace of Samuel Johnson;
its industries are brewing, coachbuilding, and implement making.


LICHTENBERG, GEORG CHRISTOPH, German physicist and satirist, born
near Darmstadt; was educated at Goettingen, and appointed professor there
in 1770; he wrote a commentary on Hogarth's copperplates; his reputation
in Germany as a satirist is high (1742-1799).


LICINIUS, CAIUS, a Roman tribune and consul, of plebeian birth,
author of several laws intended to minimise the distinction politically
between patrician and plebeian, in office between 376 and 361 B.C.


LICK OBSERVATORY, an observatory built at the expense of James Lick,
an American millionaire, on one of the peaks of Mount Hamilton,
California, with a telescope that has the largest object-glass of any in
the world.


LICTOR, an officer in Rome who bore the FASCES (q. v.)
before a magistrate when on duty.


LIDDELL, HENRY GEORGE, Greek lexicographer, graduated at Oxford in
1833; was tutor of Christ Church, and in 1845 appointed professor of
Moral Philosophy; he was successively Head-master of Winchester, Dean of
Christ Church, and Vice-Chancellor of Oxford from 1870 to 1874; his great
work is a Greek lexicon (first edition 1843, last 1883), of which he was
joint-author with Dr. Robert Scott, and which is the standard work of its
kind in English; _b_. 1811.


LIDDON, HENRY PARRY, canon of St. Paul's, London, born in Hants;
educated at Christ Church, Oxford; eminent both as a scholar and a
preacher; author of an eloquent course of lectures, the Bampton, "On the
Divinity of Jesus Christ"; belonged to the Liberal section of the
High-Church party (1829-1890).


LIEBIG, BARON VON, eminent German chemist, born at Darmstadt; in
1824 attracted the attention of Alexander von Humboldt by a paper before
the Institute of France on fulminates, and was appointed to the chair of
Chemistry in Giessen, where he laboured 28 years, attracting students
from all quarters, and where his laboratory became a model of many others
elsewhere; wrote a number of works on chemistry, inorganic and organic,
animal and agricultural, and their applications, as well as papers and
letters; accepted a professorship in Muenich in 1852, and in 1860 was
appointed President of the Muenich Academy of Sciences (1803-1873).


LIEGE (160), a town in Belgium and capital of the Walloons, in a
very picturesque region at the confluence of the Ourthe with the Meuse,
the busiest town in Belgium and a chief seat of the woollen manufacture;
it is divided in two by the Meuse, which is spanned by 17 bridges; it is
the centre of a great mining district, and besides woollens has
manufactures of machinery, and steel and iron goods.


LIEGNITZ (46), a town in Silesia, 40 m. NW. of Breslau, where
Frederick the Great gained a victory over the Austrians in 1760.


LIFEGUARDS, the British royal household troops, consisting of
cavalry and infantry regiments.


LIGHTFOOT, JOHN, Orientalist and divine, born at Stoke-upon-Trent,
son of a clergyman, educated at Cambridge; took orders and was rector of
Ashley, Staffordshire, till 1642; next year he was one of the most
influential members of the Westminster Assembly; in 1652 he was made D.D.,
was Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge in 1653, and subsequently prebendary
of Ely; one of England's earlier Hebrew scholars, the great work of his
life was the "Horae Hebraicae et Talmudicae," published in large part
posthumously (1602-1675).


LIGHTFOOT, JOSEPH BARBER, bishop of Durham, born at Liverpool; was a
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, was eminent among English scholars
as a New Testament exegete, became bishop of Durham in 1879; died at
Bournemouth (1828-1889).


LIGNY, a village 13 m. from Charleroi, where Napoleon defeated
Bluecher two days before the battle of Waterloo while Wellington and
Marshal Ney were engaged at Quatre Bras.


LIGUORI, ST. ALPHONSE MARIA DI, founder of the Redemptorists, born
at Naples of a noble family; bred to the law, but devoted himself to a
religious life, received holy orders, lived a life of austerity, and gave
himself up to reclaim the lost and instruct the poor and ignorant; was a
man of extensive learning, and found time from his pastoral labours to
contribute extensively to theological literature and chiefly casuistry,
to the extent of 70 volumes; was canonised in 1839; the order he founded
is called by his own name as well (1696-1787).


LIGURIAN REPUBLIC, a name given by Bonaparte to the republic of
Genoa, founded in 1797.


LI HUNG CHANG, an eminent and enlightened Chinese statesman; is
favourable to European culture and intercourse with Europe; was sent as a
special envoy to the Czar's coronation in 1896, and afterwards visited
other countries in Europe, including our own, and the States and Canada;
_b_. 1823.


LILBURNE, JOHN, a victim of the Star-Chamber in the time of Charles
I., and exposed on the pillory as well as fined and imprisoned; joined
the Parliamentary ranks and fought for the Commonwealth, but as an
Independent indulged in violent harangues against Cromwell, and was
committed to the Tower, but on his release turned Quaker (1618-1657).


LILITH or LILIS, the name of Adam's first wife, whom, according
to Jewish tradition, he had before Eve, and who bore him in that wedlock
the whole progeny of aerial, aquatic, and terrestrial devils, and who, it
seems, still wanders about the world bewitching men to like issue and
slaying little children not protected by amulets against her.


LILLE (161), chief town in the department of Nord, in the extreme N.
of France, 60 m. inland from Calais, an ancient and at present very
strong fortress, is in a fertile district; the town, rebuilt in modern
times, has a Catholic university, a medical school, library, and art
gallery, and thriving industries, linen, cotton, tobacco, sugar, and many
others.


LILLIPUT, a country inhabited by a very diminutive race of men not
larger in size than a man's finger, visited by Gulliver in his travels.


LILLO, GEORGE, English dramatist, born in London, by trade a
jeweller; wrote seven comedies, of which "The Fatal Curiosity" and
"George Barnwell" are the best and the best appreciated (1693-1739).


LILLY, WILLIAM, an English astrologer, born in Leicestershire, who
made gain by his fortune-telling during the Commonwealth period
especially, but got into trouble afterwards as a presumed mischief-maker
(1602-1681).


LIMA (200), capital of Peru, 6 m. inland from Callao, its port, a
picturesque but somewhat shabby city, 700 ft. above the sea-level,
regularly built, with many plazas; has a cathedral and 70 churches;
trade is in the hands of foreigners, mostly Germans, and industries are
unimportant; it was founded by Pizarro, and his bones lie buried in the
cathedral.


LIMBURG, in the basin of the Meuse, formerly a duchy, was after
various fortunes divided in 1839 into Belgian Limburg (225), on the W. of
the river, capital Hasselt (13), and Dutch Limburg (262), on the E.,
capital Maestricht (33); partly moorland and partly arable, it has coal,
iron, sugar, and tobacco industries.


LIMBUS or LIMBO, according to Catholic theologians a region on
the confines of Hades tenanted, the _limbus patrum_, by the souls of good
men who died before Christ's advent, and the _limbus infantium_, by the
souls of unbaptized infants, both of whom await there the resurrection
morn to join the ransomed in heaven.


LIMELIGHT, a bright light caused by making a stream of two gases,
oxygen and nitrogen, play in a state of ignition on a piece of compact
quicklime.


LIMERICK (159), Irish county on the S. of the Shannon estuary,
between Tipperary and Kerry, watered by the Mulcai, Maigue, and Deel;
hilly in the S., is mostly fertile, and under corn and green crops;
cattle are reared and dairy products exported; some woollens and paper
manufactured. There are many antiquities. Limerick (37), the county town,
on the Shannon, is the fourth Irish seaport, and manufactures a little
lace.


LIMITED LIABILITY, liability on the part of the shareholders of a
joint-stock company limited by the amount of their shares.


LIMOGES (68), chief town in the dep. of Haute-Vienne, on the Vienne
River, 250 m. S. of Paris; has a Gothic cathedral; is one of the chief
manufacturing towns of France. Its porcelain and woollen cloths are
widely famed; it has a large transit trade; it gives name to a fine kind
of surface enamel, which was brought to perfection there.


LINCOLN (44), capital of Lincolnshire, on the Witham, 130 m. N. of
London; is a very old and quaint city, with one of the finest cathedrals
in England, and many historic buildings. Its annual spring horse-fair is
among the largest in the world. It manufactures agricultural instruments,
and trades in flour. Its stands on the Oolitic Ridge, and commands a wide
view of the Trent Valley.


LINCOLN, ABRAHAM, sixteenth President of the United States, born
near Hodgensville, Kentucky; spent his boyhood there and in the Indiana
forests, and picked up some education in the backwoods schools; passed
some years in rough work; he was clerk in a store at New Salem, Illinois;
became village postmaster and deputy county surveyor, and began to study
law; from 1834 to 1842 he led the Whigs in the State legislature, and in
1846 entered Congress; he prospered as a lawyer, and almost left
politics; but the opening of the slavery question in 1854 recalled him,
and in a series of public debates with Stephen Douglas established his
reputation as debater and abolitionist; unsuccessful in his candidature
for the Senate, he was nominated by the Republicans for the Presidency,
and elected 1860; his election was the signal for the secession of the
Southern States; Lincoln refused to recognise the secession, accepted the
war, and prosecuted it with energy; on New Year's day, 1863, he
proclaimed the emancipation of the negroes, and was re-elected President
in 1864, but shortly after his second inauguration was assassinated; he
was a man of high character, straightforward, steadfast, and sympathetic
(1809-1865).


LINCOLN'S INN. See INNS OF COURT.


LINCOLNSHIRE (473), maritime county in the E. of England, between
the Humber and the Wash, next to Yorkshire in size, consists of upland
country in the W., chalk downs in the E., and fens in the S., but these
well reclaimed and cultivated. It is watered by the Trent, Witham, and
Welland, and crossed by numerous canals. Iron abounds in the W.; sheep,
cattle, and horses are raised. Grimsby is a shipping and fishing centre.
Sir Isaac Newton and Lord Tennyson were born in the county, which has
many historic associations.


LINCRUSTA WALTON, a plastic material invented by Walton, capable of
being moulded into raised patterns for decorating walls, &c.


LIND, JENNY (Madame Otto Goldschmidt), the Swedish nightingale, born
at Stockholm; giving evidence of her power of song in childhood, she was
put under a master at nine; too soon put to practise in public, her voice
at twelve showed signs of contracting, but after four years recovered its
full power, when, appearing as Alice in "Robert le Diable," the effect
was electric; henceforth her fame was established, and followed her over
the world; in 1844 she made a round of the chief cities of Germany; made
her first appearance in London in 1847, and visited New York in 1851,
where she married, and then left the stage for good, to appear only now
and again at intervals for some charitable object; she was plain looking,
and a woman of great simplicity both in manners and ways of thinking
(1821-1882).


LINDLEY, JOHN, distinguished botanist, born near Norwich; wrote
extensively on botany according to the natural system of classification,
and did much to popularise the study; was professor of the science in
London University (1799-1865).


LINDSAY, name of a Scottish family of Norman extraction, and that
first figures in Scottish history in the reign of David I.


LINDSAY or LYNDSAY, SIR DAVID, OF THE MOUNT, Scottish poet,
born at the Mount, near Cupar, Fife, at the grammar-school of which he
was educated, as afterwards at St. Andrews University; was usher to James
V. from his childhood, and knighted by him after he came of age; did
diplomatic work in England, France, the Netherlands, and Denmark; is
famous as the author of, among others, three poems, the "Satire of the
Three Estates," "Dialogues between Experience and a Courtier," and the
"History of Squire Meldrum," of which the first is the most worthy of
note, and is divided into five parts, the main body of it a play of an
allegorical kind instinct with conventional satire; without being a
partisan of the Reformation, his works, from the satire in them being
directed against the Church, contributed very materially to its reception
in Scotland approximately (1490-1555).


LINGA, a symbol in the phallus worship of the East of the male or
generative power in nature. This worship prevails among the Hindu sect of
the Givas or Sivas, and the symbol takes the form of the pistil of a
flower, or an erect cylindrical stone.


LINGARD, JOHN, historian, born at Winchester, the son of a
carpenter; besides a work on the "Antiquity of the Anglo-Saxon Church,"
wrote a "History of England from the Roman Invasion to the Reign of
William III.," the first written that shows anything like scholarly
accuracy, and fairly impartial, though the author's religious views as a
Roman Catholic, it is alleged, distort the facts a little (1771-1851).


LINGUA FRANCA, a jargon composed of a mixture of languages used in
trade intercourse.


LINLITHGOW (4), the county town of Linlithgowshire, 16 m. W. of
Edinburgh, on the S. shore of a loch of the name, with a palace, the
birthplace of James V.; the county (52) lying on the S. shore of the
Forth, and rich in minerals.


LINNAEUS, or more properly LINNE, KARL VON, great Swedish
naturalist, specially in the department of botany, a branch to the study
of which he was devoted from his earliest years; he was the founder of
the system of the classification of plants which bears his name, and
which is determined by the number and disposition of the reproductive
organs, but which is now superseded by the natural system of Jussieu; he
was professor at Upsala, and his works on his favourite subject were
numerous, and extended far and wide his reputation as a naturalist
(1707-1778).


LINNELL, JOHN, English painter, painted portraits at first, but in
the end landscapes, of which last "The Windmill" and a wood scene are in
the National Gallery; he was a friend and an admirer of William Blake
(1807-1882).


LINOLEUM, a floorcloth, being a composition of cork and linseed oil
with chloride of silver.


LINOTYPE, a contrivance for setting and casting words or lines for
printing.


LINZ (47), the capital of the crownland of Upper Austria, on the
right bank of the Danube; a busy commercial place, a great railway
centre, and the seat of the manufacture of woollen goods, linen, tobacco,
&c.; is also of great strategical importance in time of war.


LION, THE, the king of animals, was the symbol of power, courage,
and virtue, and in Christian art of the resurrection; is in general, as
Mr. Fairholt remarks, "a royal symbol, and in emblem of dominion,
command, magnanimity, vigilance, and strength; representing when
_couchant_ sovereignty, when _rampant_ magnanimity, when _passant_
resolution, when _guardant_ prudence, when _saliant_ valour, when
_sciant_ counsel, and when _regardant_ circumspection."


LIP`ARI ISLANDS (22), a group of islands of volcanic origin, 12 in
number, off the N. coast of Sicily, in two of which, Vulcano and
Stromboli, the volcanic force is still active, the latter emitting clouds
of steam at intervals of five minutes.


LIPPE (128), an old N. German principality, the principal towns of
which are Detmold, Lemgo, and Horn.


LIPPI, FILIPPINO, Italian painter, son of the succeeding; is
presumed to have been a pupil of BOTTICELLI'S (q. v.); his
earliest known work is the "Vision of St. Bernard" in Florence, and he
executed various works in Bologna, Genoa, and Rome; painted frescoes and
altar-pieces, and scenes in the lives of St. Peter and St. Paul
(1460-1504).


LIPPI, FRA FILIPPO, Italian painter, born at Florence; left an
orphan, was brought up in a monastery, where his talent for art was
developed and encouraged; went to Ancona, was carried off by pirates, but
procured his release by his skill in drawing, and returning to Italy
practised his art in Florence and elsewhere, till one day he eloped with
a novice in a nunnery who sat to him for a Madonna, by whom he became the
father of a son no less famous than himself; he prosecuted his art amid
poverty with zeal and success to the last; distinguished by Ruskin (Fors
xxiv. 4) as the only monk who ever did good painter's work; he had
Botticelli for a pupil (1412-1469).


LIPSIUS, JUSTUS, an erudite Belgian scholar, with fast and loose
religious principles; was the author of numerous learned works
(1547-1579).


LIPSIUS, RICHARD ADELBERT, distinguished German theologian, born in
Gera; professor in succession at Vienna, Kiel, and Jena; wrote on
dogmatics, the philosophy of religion, and New Testament criticism
(1830-1892).


LISBON (301), the capital of Portugal, a magnificent town, built on
the N. bank of the Tagus, 9 m. from its mouth, extends along the banks of
the river 9 m. and inland 5 m.; it boasts of an array of fine buildings
and squares, a number of literary and scientific institutions, and a
spacious harbour; is remarkable for a marble aqueduct which brings water
more than 10 m. across the valley of Alcantara; the manufactures include
tobacco, soap, wool, and chemicals, and the exports wine, oil, and
fruits; it suffered from an earthquake of great violence in 1755, by
which the greater part of the city was destroyed, and from 30,000 to
40,000 of the inhabitants were killed.


LISTER, JOSEPH, LORD, eminent surgeon, born at Upton, Essex; the
founder of modern antiseptic surgery, and is as such reckoned among the
world's greatest benefactors; was President of the British Association in
1896, and is surgeon-extraordinary to the Queen; _b_. 1827.


LISTON, JOHN, an English actor of low comedy, and long famous on the
London stage, to which he was introduced by Charles Kemble; _d_. 1846.


LISTON, ROBERT, a celebrated surgeon, born in Linlithgowshire;
studied in Edinburgh and London; was distinguished as an operator; was
professor of Clinical Surgery in University College, London, and author
of "Elements of Surgery" and "Practical Surgery" (1794-1847).


LISZT, ABBE FRANZ, famous pianist, a Hungarian by birth; born with a
genius for music, his first efforts at composition were not successful,
and it was not till he heard what Paganini made of the violin that he
thought what might be made of the piano, and that he devoted himself to
the culture of piano music, with the result that he not only became the
first pianist himself, but produced a set of compositions that had the
effect of raising the art to the highest pitch of perfection; he was a
zealous Catholic, and took holy orders, but this did not damp his ardour
or weaken his power as a musician; he spent the greater part of his life
at Weimar, but he practised his art far and wide, and his last visit to
England in 1886, the year on which he died, created quite a flutter in
musical circles (1811-1886).


LITANY, a form of supplication in connection with some impending
calamity in which the prayer of the priest or officiating clergyman is
responded to by the congregation.


LITERATURE, defined by Carlyle "as an 'apocalypse of nature,' a
revealing of the 'open secret,' a 'continuous revelation' of the God-like
in the terrestrial and common, which ever endures there, and is brought
out now in this dialect, now in that, with various degrees of
clearness ... there being touches of it (i. e. the God-like) in the
dark stormful indignation of a Byron, nay, in the withered mockery of a
French sceptic, his mockery of the false, a love and worship of the
true ... how much more in the sphere harmony of a Shakespeare, the
cathedral music of a Milton; something of it too in those humble, genuine,
lark-notes of a Burns, skylark starting from the humble furrow far overhead
into the blue depths, and singing to us so genuinely there."


LITHUANIA, formerly a grand-duchy occupying portions of the valleys
of the Dwina, Niemen, Dnieper, and Bug; for centuries connected with
Poland; passed to Russia in 1814. The Lithuanians are a distinct race of
the Indo-European stock, fair and handsome, with a language of their
own, and a literature rich in folk-lore and songs. Of a strong religious
temperament, they embraced Christianity late (13th century), and still
retain many pagan superstitions; formerly serfs, they are now a humble
peasantry engaged in agriculture, cattle-breeding, and bee-keeping.


LITMUS, a colouring matter obtained from certain lichens;
extensively used in chemical experiments to detect acids, for instance.


LITTLE CORPORAL, a name given to Bonaparte after the battle of Lodi
from his small stature, he being only 5 ft. 2 in.


LITTLE ENGLANDERS, those politicians who hold that English statesmen
should concern themselves with England only and its internal affairs.


LITTLETON, SIR THOMAS, English jurist of the 15th century; was
recorder of Coventry in 1450, judge of Common Pleas 1466, and knighted in
1475; his work on "Tenures" was the first attempt to classify the law of
land rights, and was the basis of the famous "Coke upon Littleton"; _d_.
1481.


LITTRE, a celebrated French scholar, physician, philologist, and
philosopher, born in Paris; wrote on medical subjects, and translated
Hippocrates; was of the Positivist school in philosophy, and owes his
fame chiefly to his "Dictionnaire de la Langue Francaise," published in
1863-72, and on which he spent forty years' labour (1801-1881).


LITURGY is sometimes used as including any form of public worship,
but more strictly it denotes the form for the observance of the
Eucharist. As development from the simple form of their institution in
the primitive Church liturgies assumed various forms, and only by degrees
certain marked types began to prevail: viz., the Roman, ascribed to St.
Peter, in Latin, and prevailing in the Roman Catholic Church all over the
world; the Ephesian, ascribed to St. John, in corrupt Latin, included the
old Scottish and Irish forms, heard now only in a few places in Spain;
the Jerusalem, ascribed to St. James, in Greek, the form of the Greek
Church and in translation of the Armenians; the Babylonian, ascribed to
St. Thomas, in Syriac, used still by the Nestorians and Christians of St.
Thomas; and the Alexandrian, ascribed to St. Mark, in a Graeco-Coptic
jargon, in use among the Copts; these all contain certain common
elements, but differ in order and in subsidiary parts; the Anglican
liturgy is adapted from the Roman; other Protestant liturgies or forms of
service are mostly of modern date and compiled from Scripture sources.


LIVA, an Italian coin worth 91/2 d., and the monetary unit in the
country.


LIVERPOOL (585), the third city and first seaport of Great Britain,
in Lancashire, on the Mersey, 3 m. from the sea, formerly the chief seat
of the slave interest in Britain; owed its present prosperity to the
impulse of the cotton trade at the end of the 18th century; progressing
rapidly it has now docks stretching six miles along the Mersey, which
receive a sixth of the tonnage that visits British ports; through it
passes a third of our foreign trade, including enormous imports of wheat
and cotton and exports of cotton goods; it possesses shipbuilding and
engineering works, iron-foundries, flour, tobacco, and chemical
factories; the public buildings, town hall, exchange, colleges, and
observatory are fine edifices; it was the native place of W. E.
Gladstone.


LIVERPOOL, EARL OF, ROBERT JENKINSON, English statesman, educated at
Oxford; entered Parliament 1791, and as Foreign Secretary negotiated the
peace of Amiens in 1802; becoming Lord Hawkesbury in 1803, he became Home
Secretary under Pitt, and succeeding to the earldom in 1808; was War
Secretary under Perceval in 1800, Premier from 1812 to 1827; he
liberalised the tariff and maintained a sound finance, uniting and
holding together the Tory party at a critical period (1770-1828).


LIVERYMEN, name given to members of the several guilds or
corporations of London and freemen of the city, so called as entitled to
wear the livery belonging to their respective companies; they possess
certain privileges of a civic character.


LIVINGSTONE, DAVID, African traveller and missionary, born in
Blantyre, Lanarkshire; began life as a mill-worker, studied medicine and
theology at Glasgow, and was sent out to Africa by the London Missionary
Society in 1840, landed at Port Natal, and addressed himself to
missionary work; moving north, he arrived at Lake Ngami in 1849, and
ascending the Zambesi in 1853 arrived at Loanda next year; later on he
explored the course of the Zambesi and its tributaries, discovered Lake
Nyassa, and set himself to discover the sources of the Nile, but this
expedition proved too much for him, and he died exhausted; his body was
embalmed, brought home to England, and buried in Westminster Abbey
(1815-1873).


LIVIUS, TITUS (LIVY), illustrious Roman historian, born at Patavium
(Padua); appears to have settled early in Rome and spent the most of his
life there; his reputation rests on his "History of Rome from the
Foundation of the City to the Death of Drusus," it consisted of 142
chapters, but of these only 30 remain entire and 5 in fragments,
bequeathing to posterity his account of the early history of the city and
of the wars with Hannibal (59-17 B.C.).


LIVONIA (1,260), Russian Baltic province on the Gulf of Riga; is
flat and marshy, and only moderately fertile; produces rye, barley, and
potatoes; its chief industries are distilling, brewing, and
iron-founding, and fishing; four-fifths of the population are Letts and
Esthonians, only 5 per cent. are Russian; the original Finnic Livonians
are almost extinct; capital Riga (180).


LIVRAISON, part of a serial issued from time to time.


LLANDUDNO (6), a fashionable watering-place at the foot of Great
Ormes Head, Carnarvon, frequented by people from Yorkshire and
Lancashire.


LLANELLY (32), a manufacturing seaport in Carmarthenshire for
shipping coal, iron, and copper.


LLANOS, vast level plains twice the size of Great Britain in the N.
of South America, in the basin of the Orinoco, covered in great part with
tall grass and stocked in the rainy season with herds of cattle; during
the dry season they are a desert.


LLORENTE, JUAN ANTONIO, Spanish historian, is the author of several
works, but his celebrity is mainly due to his "History of the Spanish
Inquisition," of which in 1789 he became the secretary (1760-1823).


LLOYD'S, a part of the Royal Exchange, London, appropriated to the
use of underwriters and for marine intelligence, frequented by those
interested in merchant shipping; so called from Lloyd's Coffee-house,
formerly the head-quarters of the class.


LOAD-LINE, line painted on the outside of a vessel to mark the
extreme of immersion in loading her with a cargo.


LOADSTONE or LODESTONE, an iron ore remarkable for its magnetic
quality or power of attracting iron; it derived its name from its use as
a leading stone in the compass to mariners.


LOBBY, THE, hall connected with a legislative assembly to which the
public have access.


LOCAL OPTION, licence granted to the inhabitants of a district to
extinguish or reduce the sale of intoxicants in their midst.


LOCHABER, a Highland district in the S. of Inverness-shire.


LOCHABER AXE, an axe with a broad blade and a long handle formerly
in use among the Highlanders as a weapon.


LOCHIEL, a Highland chief, Sir Evan Cameron his name, head of the
Cameron clan, who held out against William III.'s rule in the Highlands,
but ultimately took the oath of allegiance; _d_. 1719.


LOCHINVAR, hero of a ballad in Scott's "Marmion," who carries off
his sweetheart just as she is about to be sacrificed in marriage to
another whom she loathes.


LOCHLEVEN, Scottish lake in Kinross-shire overshadowed by Benarty
and the West Lomond, is 23 m. NW. of Edinburgh; in a castle on one of its
islands Mary Stuart was imprisoned 1567-68; it is now famous for its
trout.


LOCKE, JOHN, English philosopher, the father of modern materialism
and empiricism, born in Wrington, Somerset; studied medicine, but did not
practise it, and gave himself up to a literary life, much of it spent in
the family of the celebrated Earl of Shaftesbury, both at home with it
and abroad; his great work is his "Essay on the Human Understanding" in
1690, which was preceded by "Letters on Toleration," published before the
expulsion of James II., and followed by the "Treatise on Government" the
same year, and "Thoughts on Education" in 1693; his "Essay" was written
to show that all our ideas were derived from experience, that is, through
the senses and reflection on what they reveal, and that there are no
innate ideas; "Locke," says Prof. Saintsbury, "is eminently" (that is,
before all his contemporaries) "of such stuff as dreams are _not_ made
of"--is wholly a prosaic practical man and Englishman (1632-1704).


LOCKHART, JOHN GIBSON, man of letters, born in Cambusnethan; bred
for the Scottish bar and practised at it; contributed to _Blackwood_,
wrote in collaboration with John Wilson "Peter's Letters to his
Kinsfolk"; married Sophia Scott, Sir Walter's daughter, in 1820, lived a
good deal near Abbotsford, wrote some four novels and "Spanish Ballads,"
became editor of the _Quarterly_ in 1825, and began in 1837 his "Life of
Scott," a great work, and his greatest; died at Abbotsford, health broken
and in much sorrow; his "Life" has been interestingly written by Andrew
Lang (1794-1854).


LOCKOUT, the exclusion of workmen from a factory by the employer to
bring them to terms which they decline to accept.


LOCKYER, SIR JOSEPH NORMAN, astronomer, born at Rugby; became clerk
in the War Office in 1857, was secretary to the Royal Commission on
Scientific Instruction in 1870, and was transferred to the Science and
Art Department in 1875; he directed Government eclipse expeditions to
Sicily, India, Egypt, and the West Indies; in 1860 he became F.R.S.,
received the Society's Rumford medal in 1874, next year was appointed
corresponding Member of the Institute of France and received the Janssen
medal in 1891; he was knighted in 1897; he made important discoveries in
spectrum analysis, and has written several astronomical works; _b_. 1836.


LOCO-FOCOS, the name, which denotes lucifer-matches, given to an
ultra-democratic or radical party in the United States because at a
meeting when on one occasion the lights were extinguished the matches
which they carried were drawn and the lamps lit again.


LOCRI, a people of ancient Greece of two distinct tribes occupying
different districts of the country.


LODI (18), a town in Lombardy, 18 m. SE. of Milan, on the Adda,
famous for a signal victory of Bonaparte over the Austrians in 1796 in
the face of a tremendous fire.


LOEWE, GOTTFRIED, German composer; composed oratorios, operas, and
pianoforte pieces; sang and played in London in 1847 (1796-1869).


LOFODEN ISLANDS (20), a rugged mountainous chain on the NW.
Norwegian coast within the Arctic circle, with winters rendered mild by
the Gulf Stream, afford pasturage for sheep; the waters between them and
the mainland are a rich cod-fishing ground, visited by thousands of boats
between January and March.


LOGAN, JOHN, a Scotch poet, born at Soutra; was for a time minister
in South Leith church, but was obliged to resign; was the author of a
lyric, "The Braes of Yarrow" and certain of the Scotch paraphrases
(1748-1788). See BRUCE, MICHAEL.


LOGARITHM, the exponent of the power to which a fixed number, called
the base, must be raised to produce a certain given number.


LOGIC, the science of correct thinking or of the laws which regulate
thought, called also dialectics; or in the Hegelian system "the
scientific exposition and development of those notions or categories
which underlie all things and all being."


LOGIC SPECTACLES, Carlyle's name for eyes that can only discern the
external relations of things, but not the inner nature of them.


LOGOS, an expression in St. John's gospel translated the Word (in
chap. i.) to denote the manifestation of God, or God as manifested,
defined in theology as the second person of the Deity, and viewed as
intermediary between God as Father and God as Spirit.


LOG-ROLLING, mutual praise by authors of each other's work.


LOHENGRIN, hero of a German 13th-century poem; son of Parzival, and
a Knight of the Grail; carried by a swan to Brabant he delivered and
married the Princess Elsa; subsequently returning from war against the
Saracens, she asked him of his origin; he told her, and was at once
carried back again by the swan. Wagner adapted the story in his opera
"Lohengrin."


LOIRE, the largest river in France, 630 m., rises in the Cevennes,
flows northwards to Orleans and westward to the Bay of Biscay, through a
very fertile valley which it often inundates. It is navigable for 550 m.,
but its lower waters are obstructed by islands and shoals; it is
connected by canals with the Seine, Saone, and Brest Harbour.


LOKI, in the Norse mythology, a primitive spirit of evil who mingles
with the Norse gods, distinguished for his cunning and ensnaring ways,
whose devices are only evil in appearance, and are overruled for good.


LOLLARDS, originally a religious community established at Antwerp in
1300, devoted to the care of the sick and burial of the dead, and as
persecuted by the Church, regarded as heretics. Their name became a
synonym for heretic, and was hence applied to the followers of Wycliffe
in England and certain sectaries in Ayrshire.


LOMBARD, PETER, a famous schoolman, born in Lombardy in the 12th
century, of poor parents; was a disciple of Abelard; taught theology at,
and became Bishop of, Paris; was styled the Master of Sentences, as
author of a compilation of sentences from Augustine and other Church
Fathers on points of Christian doctrine, and long used as a manual in
scholastic disputations.


LOMBARDS, a German people, settled at the beginning of our era about
the lower Elbe. In the 5th century we find them in Moravia, and a century
later established, a powerful people, between the Adriatic and the
Danube. They invaded Italy in 568, and in three years had mastered the
North, but abandoning their Arian faith they gradually became
Italianised, and after the overthrow of their dynasty by Charlemagne in
774 they became merged in the Italians. From the 13th century Italian
merchants, known as Lombards, from Lucca, Florence, Venice, and Genoa,
traded under much odium, largely in England as wool-dealers and bankers,
whence the name Lombard Street.


LOMBARDY (3,982), an inland territory of Northern Italy between the
Alps and the Po, Piedmont, and Venetia. In the N. are Alpine mountains
and valleys rich in pasturage; in the S. a very fertile, well irrigated
plain, which produces cereals, rice, and sub-tropical plants. The culture
of the silkworm is extensive; there are textile and hardware
manufactures. The chief towns are Milan, Pavia, and Corno. Austrian in
1713, Napoleon made it part of the kingdom of Italy in 1805; it was
restored to Austria in 1815, and finally again to Italy in 1859.


LOMOND, LOCH, an irregularly-shaped lake in Dumbarton and Stirling
shires, 22 m. long and of varying breadth; contains a number of small
wooded islands; on the eastern shore rises Ben Lomond to the height of
3192 ft.


LONDON (5,633), on the Thames, 50 m. from the sea, the capital of
the British Empire, is the most populous and wealthiest city in the
world. An important place in Roman times, it was the cap. of the East
Saxons, and has been the metropolis of England since the Norman Conquest;
it possesses, therefore, innumerable historic buildings and associations.
Often devastated by plague and fire, its progress has never been stayed;
its population has more than quadrupled itself this century, and more
than doubled since 1850. The City of London proper occupies one square
mile in the centre, is wholly a commercial part, and is governed by an
annually elected mayor and aldermen; is the seat of a bishopric, with St.
Paul's for cathedral. The City of Westminster is also a bishopric under a
high steward and high bailiff, chosen by the dean and chapter. These two
cities, with twenty-five boroughs under local officers, constitute the
metropolis, and since 1888 the county of the city of London, and send 59
members to Parliament. Streets in the older parts are narrow, but newer
districts are well built; the level ground and density of building
detracts from the effect of innumerable magnificent edifices. Buckingham,
Kensington, and St. James's are royal residences; the Houses of
Parliament are the biggest Gothic building in the world; St. Paul's,
built by Sir Christopher Wren, contains the remains of Nelson and
Wellington, Reynolds, Turner, and Wren himself. Westminster, consecrated
1269, is the burial-place of England's greatest poets and statesmen, and
of many kings; the Royal Courts of Justice in the Strand were opened in
1882. London has a University (an examining body), 700 colleges and
endowed schools, among which Westminster, Christ's Hospital, and the
Charterhouse are famous, many medical hospitals, and schools and
charitable institutions of all kinds. London is the centre of the English
literary and artistic world, and of scientific interest and research;
here are the largest publishing houses, the chief libraries and
art-galleries, and museums; the British Museum and Library, the National
Galleries, &c., and magnificent botanical and zoological gardens. London
is also a grand emporium of commerce, and the banking centre of the
world. It has nine principal docks; its shipping trade is unrivalled,
55,000 vessels enter and clear annually; it pays more than half the
custom duties of the kingdom, and handles more than a quarter of the
total exports; its warehouse trade is second only to that of Manchester;
it manufactures everything, chiefly watches, jewellery, leather goods,
cycles, pianos, and glass. The control of traffic, the lighting, and
water-supply of so large a city are causing yearly more serious problems.


LONDON (30), the cap. of Middlesex county, Ontario, near the S. end
of the peninsula, in the middle of a fertile district, and a rising
place.


LONDONDERRY (152), maritime county in Ulster, washed by Lough Foyle
and the Atlantic, surrounded by Donegal in the W., Tyrone in the S., and
Antrim in the W., and watered by the Foyle, Roe, and Bann Rivers,
somewhat hilly towards the S., is largely under pasture; the cultivated
parts grow oats, potatoes, and flax; granted to the Corporation and
Guilds of London in 1609, a large part of the land is still owned by
them. The county town, LONDONDERRY (33), manufactures linen shirts,
whisky, and iron goods, and does a considerable shipping trade. Its siege
by the troops of James II. in 1689 is memorable.


LONG, GEORGE, a distinguished classical scholar, born in Lancashire;
became professor of Greek in London University; edited several useful
works, among others the "Penny Cyclopaedia," on which he spent 11 years of
his life (1800-1870).


LONG ISLAND (774), a long narrow island, 115 m. long by from 12 to
24 broad, belonging to New York State, off the shores of New York and
Connecticut, from which it is separated by the East River and Long Island
Sound. It is low, much of it forest and sandy waste land, with great
lagoons in the S. The chief industry is market-gardening; fisheries and
oyster-beds are valuable. Principal towns, Brooklyn, Long Island City,
and Flushing.


LONG PARLIAMENT, the celebrated English Parliament which assembled
3rd November 1640, and was dissolved by Cromwell 20th April 1653, and
which was afterwards restored, and did not finally decease till 16th
March 1660.


LONG TOM COFFIN, a character in Cooper's novel "The Pilot," and of
wider celebrity than any of the sailor class.


LONGCHAMP, a racecourse on the W. side of the Bois du Boulogne,
Paris.


LONGCHAMP, WILLIAM DE, a low-born Norman favourite of Richard I.,
made by him bishop of Ely; became Justiciar of England 1190, and Papal
Legate 1191; clever, energetic, just, and faithful, he yet incurred
dislike by his ambition and arrogance, and was banished to Normandy; his
energy in gathering the money for Richard's ransom restored him to
favour, and he became Chancellor; _d_. 1197.


LONGFELLOW, HENRY WADSWORTH, American poet, born at Portland, Maine;
after studying on the Continent, became professor of Modern Languages in
Harvard University; wrote "Hyperion," a romance in prose, and a
succession of poems as well as lyrics, among the former "Evangeline,"
"The Golden Legend," "Hiawatha," and "Miles Standish" (1807-1882).


LONGINUS, DIONYSIUS CASSIUS, a learned Greek philosopher,
rhetorician, and critic, and eminent in all three departments, being in
philosophy a Platonist of pure blood; his fame as a teacher reached the
ears of Zenobia, the queen of Palmyra, and being invited to her court he
became her political adviser as well as the educator of her children, but
on the surrender of the place he was beheaded by order of the Emperor
Aurelian as a traitor; he wrote several works, but the only one that
survives to some extent is his "Treatise on the Sublime," translated by
Boileau (210-273).


LONGMANS, famous and oldest publishing house in London; founded by
Thomas Longman of Bristol in 1726, and now in the hands of the fifth
generation; has been associated with the production of Johnson's
"Dictionary," Lindley Murray's "Grammar," the works of Wordsworth,
Southey, Coleridge, and Scott, and Macaulay's "Lays," "Essays," and
"History"; it absorbed the firm of Parker in 1863, and of Rivington in
1890.


LOeNNROT, ELIAS, a great Finnish scholar, born in Nyland; was
professor at Helsingfors; was editor of ancient Finnish compositions, and
author of a Finnish-Swedish Dictionary (1802-1884).


LOPE DE VEGA. See VEGA.


LORD OF THE ISLES, assumed title of Donald, a chief of Islay, who in
1346 reduced the whole of the Western Isles under his authority, and
borne by his successors, and, as some allege, his ancestors as well.


LORELEI or LURLEI, a famous steep rock, 430 ft. high, on the
Rhine, near St. Goar; dangerous to boatmen, on which it was fabled a
siren sat combing her hair and singing to lure them to ruin; the subject
of an exquisite Volkslied by Heine.


LORETTO, a city in Italy, 14 m. SE. of Ancona; celebrated as the
site of the SANTA CASA (q. v.), and for the numerous pilgrims
that annually resort to the holy shrine.


L'ORIENT (41), a seaport in Morbihan; contains the principal
shipbuilding yard in France; was founded by the French East India Company
in 1664 in connection with their trade in the East.


LORNE, MARQUIS OF, eldest son of the Duke of Argyll; entered
Parliament in 1868; married Princess Louise, fourth daughter of Queen
Victoria, in 1871; became Governor-General of Canada in 1878, member of
Parliament for South Manchester in 1895, and is Governor of Windsor
Castle; _b_. 1845.


LORRAINE, a district in France, between Metz and the Vosges;
belonged originally to Germany, became French in 1766, and was restored
to Germany in 1871.


LORRAINE, CLAUDE. See CLAUDE LORRAINE.


LOS ANGELES (11), a city in South California, 345 m. SE. of San
Francisco, and founded in 1781; is the centre of a great orange-growing
district, and a health resort.


LOST TRIBES, the ten tribes of the race of Israel whom the Assyrians
carried off into captivity (see 2 Kings xvii. 6), and of whom all trace
has been lost, and only in recent years guessed at.


LOTOPHAGI. See LOTUS EATERS.


LOTUS EATERS or LOTOPHAGI, an ancient people inhabiting a
district of Cyrenaica, on the NE. coast of Africa, who lived on the fruit
of the lotus-tree, from which they made wine. Ulysses and his companions
in their wanderings landed on their shores, but the soothing influence of
the lotus fruit so overpowered them with languor, that they felt no
inclination to leave, or any more a desire to pursue the journey
homewards. See Tennyson's poem "The Lotus-eaters."


LOTZE, RUDOLF HERMANN, German philosopher, born at Bautzen, in
Saxony; professor successively at Goettingen and Berlin; believed in
metaphysics as well as physics, and was versant in both; "Microcosmus" is
his principal work, published in 1864; he founded the system of
"teleological idealism," based on ethical considerations; he repudiated
agnosticism, and had as little patience with a mere mechanical view of
the universe as Carlyle (1817-1881).


LOUDON, JOHN CLAUDIUS, botanist and horticulturist, born at
Cambuslang, Lanarkshire; wrote largely on plants and their cultivation,
and an "Arboretum" on trees and shrubs (1783-1843).


LOUIS I., LE DEBONNAIRE (i. e. the Gentle), was king of France
from 814 to 840 in succession to his father Charlemagne, but was too meek
and lowly to rule, and fitter for a monk than a king; suffered himself to
be taken advantage of by his nobles and the clergy; was dethroned by his
sons, and compelled to retire into a cloister, from which he was twice
over brought forth to stay the ravages of their enemies; he divided his
kingdom among them during his lifetime, and bequeathed it to them to
guard over it when he was gone, to its dismemberment.


LOUIS VI., LE GROS (i. e. the Fat), was son of Philip I.; was
associated in the royal power with his father from 1098 to 1108, and sole
king from 1108 till 1137; in his struggle against the great vassals he,
by the help of the clergy and the bourgeois, centralised the government
in the crown; had trouble with Henry I. of England as Lord Superior of
Normandy, and was defeated by him in battle in 1119; under his reign the
burgesses achieved their independence, and though he did nothing to
initiate the movement he knew how to profit from the achievement in the
interest of the monarchy.


LOUIS VII., THE YOUNG, son of the preceding, married Eleanor of
Aquitaine; took part in the second crusade; on his return divorced his
queen for her profligacy in his absence, who married Henry II. of
England, and brought with her as dowry to Henry the richest provinces of
France, which gave rise to the Hundred Years' War (1120-1180).


LOUIS VIII., THE LION, son of Philip Augustus; offered by the barons
of England the crown of England, he was crowned at London in 1216, but
defeated at Lincoln next year, he was obliged to recross the Channel;
became king of France in 1223; he took several towns from the English,
and conducted a crusade against the Albigenses (1187-1226).


LOUIS IX., SAINT LOUIS, son of the preceding; was a minor at the
death of his father, and the country was governed by his mother, Blanche
of Castile, with a strong hand; on attaining his majority he found
himself engaged with the English under Henry, who had been called on to
assist certain of the great barons in revolt, but in 1242 he defeated
them in three engagements; under a vow he made during a dangerous illness
he became a crusader, and in 1249 landed in Egypt with 40,000 men, but in
an engagement was taken prisoner by the Saracens; released in 1250 on
payment of a large ransom, though he did not return home for two years
after, till on hearing of the death of his mother, who had been regent
during his absence; on his return he applied himself to the affairs of
his kingdom and the establishment of the royal power, but undertaking a
second crusade in 1270, he got as far as Tunis, where a plague broke out
in the camp, and he became one of the victims, and one of his sons before
him; he was an eminently good and pious man, and was canonised by
Boniface VIII. in 1297 (1215-1270).


LOUIS XI., son of Charles VII., born at Bourges, of a cruel and
treacherous nature, took part in two insurrections against his father, by
whom he had been pardoned after the first and from whom he had to flee
after the second for refuge to Burgundy, where he remained till his
father's death in 1461; he signalised the commencement of his reign by
severe measures against the great vassals, which provoked a revolt,
headed by the Dukes of Burgundy and Bretagne, which he succeeded in
subduing more by his crafty policy than force of arms; involved
afterwards in a war with Charles the Bold of Burgundy and soliciting an
interview, he was discovered by Charles to have been sowing treason among
his subjects, taken prisoner, and only released on a solemn protestation
of innocence; notwithstanding the sinister and often cruel character of
his policy, he did much to develop the resources of the country and
advance the cause of good government by the patronage of learning; the
crimes he had committed weighed heavily on his mind towards the end of
his days, and he died in great fear of death and the judgment
(1423-1483).


LOUIS XIII., the son of Henry IV.; being only nine years old at the
death of his father, the government was conducted by Marie de' Medicis,
his mother, and at his accession the country was a prey to civil
dissensions, which increased on the young king's marriage with a Spanish
princess; the Huguenots rose in arms, but a peace was concluded in 1623;
it was now Richelieu came to the front and assumed the reins with his
threefold policy of taming the nobles, checkmating the Huguenots, and
humbling the house of Austria; Rochelle, the head-quarters of the
Huguenots, revolted, the English assisting them, but by the strategy
adopted the city was taken and the English driven to sea; henceforth the
king was nobody and the cardinal was king; the cardinal died in 1642 and
the king the year after, leaving two sons, Louis, who succeeded him, and
Philip, Duke of Orleans and the first of his line (1601-1644).


LOUIS XIV., the "Grand Monarque," son of the preceding, was only
nine when his father died, and the government was in the hands of his
mother, Anne of Austria, and Cardinal Mazarin, her minister; under the
regency the glory of France was maintained in the field, but her internal
peace was disturbed by the insubordination of the parlement and the
troubles of the Fronde; by a compact on the part of Mazarin with Spain
before he died Louis was married to the Infanta Maria Theresa in 1659,
and in 1660 he announced his intention to rule the kingdom alone, which
he did for 54 years with a decision and energy no one gave him credit
for, in fulfilment of his famous protestation _L'etat, c'est moi_,
choosing Colbert to control finance, Louvois to reorganise the army, and
Vauban to fortify the frontier towns; he sought to be as absolute in his
foreign relations as in his internal administration, and hence the long
succession of wars which, while they brought glory to France, ended in
exhausting her; at home he suffered no one in religious matters to think
otherwise than himself; he revoked the Edict of Nantes, sanctioned the
dragonnades in the Cevennes, and to extirpate heresy encouraged every
form of cruelty; yet when we look at the men who adorned it, the reign of
Louis XIV. was one of the most illustrious in letters and the arts in the
history of France: Corneille, Racine, and Moliere eminent in the drama,
La Fontaine and Boileau in poetry, Bossuet in oratory, Bruyere and
Rochefoucauld in morals, Pascal in philosophy, Saint-Simon and Retz in
history, and Poussin, Lorraine, Lebrun, Perault, &c., in art (1636-1715).


LOUIS XV., _Bien-Aime_ (i. e. Well-Beloved), great-grandson of the
preceding, and only five at his death, the country during his minority
being under the regency of Philip, Duke of Orleans; the regency was
rendered disastrous by the failure of the Mississippi Scheme of Law and a
war with Spain, caused by the rejection of a Spanish princess for Louis,
and by his marriage to Maria Lesczynski, the daughter of Stanislas of
Poland; Louis was crowned king in 1722 and declared of age the following
year; in 1726 Cardinal Fleury, who had been his tutor, became his
minister, and under him occurred the war of the succession to Poland,
concluded by the treaty of Vienna, and the war of the Austrian
succession, concluded by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle; with the death of
his minister Louis gave way to his licentious propensities, and in all
matters of state allowed himself to be swayed by unworthy favourites who
pandered to his lusts, the most conspicuous among them being Madame de
Pompadour and Dame de Barry, her successor in crime; under them, and the
corrupt court they presided over, the country went step by step to ruin,
and she was powerless to withstand the military ascendency of England,
which deprived her of all her colonies both in the East and in the West;
though Choiseul, his last "substantial" minister, tried hard by a family
compact of the Bourbons to collect her scattered strength; the situation
did not trouble Louis; "it will last all my time," he said, and he let
things go; suffering from a disease contracted by vice, he was seized
with confluent smallpox, and died in misery, to the relief of the nation,
which could not restrain its joy (1710-1774).


LOUIS XVI., the grandson of the preceding and his successor; had in
1770 married Marie Antoinette, the youngest daughter of Maria Theresa of
Austria, and a woman young, beautiful, and accomplished, in high esteem
for the purity of her character; his accession was hailed with
enthusiasm, and he set himself to restore the ruined finances of the
country by taking into his counsel those who could best advise him in her
straitened state, but these one and all found the problem an impossible
one, owing to the unwillingness of the nobility to sacrifice any of their
privileges for the public good; this led to the summoning of the
States-General in 1789, and the outbreak of the Revolution by the fall of
the Bastille in July of that year; in the midst of this Louis,
well-intentioned but without strength of character, was submissive to the
wishes of his court and the queen, lost his popularity by his hesitating
conduct, the secret support he gave to the EMIGRANTS (q. v.),
his attempt at flight, and by his negotiations with foreign enemies, and
subjected himself to persecution at the hands of the nation; he was
therefore suspended from his functions, shut up in the Temple, arraigned
before the Convention, and condemned to death as "guilty of conspiracy
against the liberty of the nation and a crime against the general safety
of the State"; he was accordingly guillotined on the 21st January; he
protested his innocence on the scaffold, but his voice was drowned by the
beating of drums; he was accompanied by the Abbe Edgeworth, his
confessor, who, as he laid his head on the block, exclaimed, "Son of St.
Louis, ascend to heaven" (1754-1793).


LOUIS XVII., second son of the preceding, shut up in the Temple,
was, after the execution of his mother, proclaimed king by the Emigrants,
and handed over in his prison to the care of one Simon, a shoemaker, in
service about the prison, to bring him up in the principles of
Sansculottism; Simon taught him to drink, dance, and sing the
_carmagnole_; he died in prison "amid squalor and darkness," his shirt
not changed for six months (1785-1796).


LOUIS XVIII., brother of Louis XVI., and called Monsieur during his
brother's reign, flew from Paris and joined the Emigrants along with his
brother, Count d'Artois, and took up arms, which he was compelled to
forego, to wander from one foreign Court to another and find refuge at
last in England; on Napoleon's departure for Elba he returned to France
and was installed on the throne as _Louis le Desire_, but by the
reappearance of the former on the scene he was obliged to seek refuge in
Belgium, to return for good after the battle of Waterloo, July 9, 1815,
with Talleyrand for minister and Fouche as minister of police; he reigned
but a few years, his constitution being much enfeebled by a disease
(1755-1824).


LOUIS NAPOLEON (Napoleon III.), nephew of the first emperor, born at
Paris, brought up at Augsburg and in Switzerland; became head of the
family in 1832; he began a Bonapartist propaganda, and set himself to
recover the throne of France; an abortive attempt in 1836 ended in a
short exile in America and London, and a second at Boulogne in 1840
landed him in the fortress of Ham under sentence of perpetual
imprisonment; escaping in 1846 he spent two years in England, returning
to France after the Revolution of 1848; elected to the Constituent
Assembly and the same year to the Presidency he assumed the headship of
the Republic, and posed as the protector of popular liberties and
national prosperity; struggles with the Assembly followed; he won the
favour of the army, filled the most important posts with his friends,
dissolved the Constitution in 1851 (Dec. 2), was immediately re-elected
President for ten years, and a year later assumed the title of Emperor;
he married the Spanish Countess Eugenie in 1853, and exerted himself by
public works, exhibitions, courting of the clergy, gagging of the press,
and so on to strengthen his hold on the populace; in the Crimean War
(1854-56) and the Lombardy campaign (1859) he was supported by Britain;
in 1860 he annexed Savoy and Nice; ten years later suspecting the
enthusiasm of the army, he plunged into war with Germany to rekindle its
ardour, on a protest arising from the scheme to put Leopold of
Hohenzollern on the Spanish throne; France was unprepared, disaster
followed disaster; the Emperor surrendered to the Germans at Sedan, Sept.
2, 1870; a prisoner till the close of the war, he came to England in 1871
and resided with the Empress at Chislehurst till his death (1808-1873).


LOUIS PHILIPPE, king of the French from 1830 till 1848, born at
Paris, eldest son of the Duke of Orleans, renounced his titles along with
his father, and joined the National Guard and the Jacobins at the
Revolution as M. Egalite; after the defeat of Neerwinden 1793, where he
commanded the centre, he fled to Austria and Switzerland and supported
himself by teaching; after three years in the United States he came to
London in 1800, and on the fall of Napoleon repaired to Paris and
recovered his estates; he gained popularity with the _bourgeoisie_, and
when the Revolution of July 1830 overthrew Charles X. he succeeded to the
throne as the elected sovereign of the people; under the "citizen king"
France prospered; but his government gradually became reactionary and
violent; he used his great wealth in giving bribes, tampered with trial
by jury and the freedom of the press, and so raised against him both the
old aristocracy and the working-classes; political agitation culminated
in the Revolution of February 1848; he was forced to abdicate and escaped
with his queen to England, where he died (1773-1850).


LOUIS-D'OR, an old French gold coin which ranged in value from 16s.
7d. to 18s. 93/4d., and ceased to be issued in 1795.


LOUISIANA (1,119), an American State on the Gulf of Mexico, between
the Mississippi and Sabine Rivers, with Arkansas on the N. and traversed
diagonally by the Red River, is half upland and half alluvial; much of
the lower level in the S. is marshy, subject to tidal flow or river
inundation, and is covered by swampy woods, but is being reclaimed and
planted with rice; on the uplands cattle are grazed, there are pine and
oak forests, while the arable land is under cotton, sugar, oranges, and
figs; the principal manufactures are shingles and tanks, cotton-seed oil,
tobacco, and clothing; there is a State University and agricultural and
mechanical college at Baton Rouge; the Southern and Tulane Universities
are in New Orleans; free schools are throughout the State. Founded by
France, but held by Spain from 1762 till 1800, ceded again to France and
sold to the United States by Napoleon, it was admitted to the Union in
1812. In the Civil War a hundred battles were fought within the State and
New Orleans was captured, which left ruin behind; but since 1880
prosperity has returned, property is increasing fast, and finances are
healthy.


LOUISVILLE (205), on the left bank of the Ohio River, the largest
city in Kentucky, is well built and regular, with a Roman Catholic
cathedral, many colleges and charitable institutions; it is the largest
tobacco market in the world, has pork packing, distilling, tanning, and
many other industries.


LOURDES, a French town in the dep. of the Hautes-Pyrenees, with a
grotto near by in which the Virgin Mary, as is alleged, appeared to a
girl of the place in 1858, and to which multitudes have since resorted in
the hope of being healed of their maladies from the waters which spring
up on the spot.


LOUTH (71), the smallest Irish county, in Leinster, stretches from
Carlingford Bay to the estuary of the Boyne, washed by the Irish Sea; the
country is flat and the soil fertile, potatoes, oats, and barley are
grown; there are coarse linen manufactures and oyster fisheries; rich in
antiquities, its chief towns are Dundalk (12), Drogheda (12), and Ardee
(2).


LOUVET, French romancer, born in Paris; author of the "Chevalier de
Faublas," which gives a picture of French society on the eve of the
Revolution, in which the author played a part (1760-1797).


LOUVOIS, MARQUIS OF, War Minister of Louis XIV., born in Paris; was
a man of great administrative ability in his department, but for the
glory of France and his own was savage for war and relentless in the
conduct of it, till one day in his obstinate zeal, as he threatened to
lay the cathedral city of Treves in ashes, the king, seizing the tongs
from the chimney, was about to strike him therewith, and would have
struck him, had not Madame de Maintenon, his mistress, interfered and
stayed his hand; he died suddenly, to the manifest relief of his royal
master (1641-1691).


LOUVRE, an open turret or lantern on ancient roofs for the escape of
smoke or foul air.


LOUVRE, a great art museum and gallery in Paris, containing
Egyptian, Assyrian, classic, mediaeval, and modern relics and art
treasures of priceless value; here is housed the Venus of Milo.


LOVAT, SIMON FRASER, LORD, a Highland chief connected with
Inverness, who, being outlawed, fled to France and got acquainted with
the Pretender, in whose interest he returned to Scotland to excite a
rising, but betraying the secret to the government was imprisoned in the
Bastille on his going back to France; on his release and return he
opposed the Pretender in 1715, but in 1745 espoused the cause of Prince
Edward; was arrested for treason, convicted, and beheaded on Tower Hill
(1667-1747).


LOVEDALE, a mission station in South Africa, 650 m. NE. of Cape
Town, founded in 1841, and supported by the Free Church of Scotland.


LOVELACE, one of the principal characters in Richardson's "Clarissa
Harlowe"; is the type of a young heartless seducer.


LOVELACE, RICHARD, English cavalier and poet, born at Woolwich, heir
of great wealth, but lost his all in supporting the royal cause, and died
a ruined man; was the handsomest man of his time, and the author of a
collection of poems entitled "Lucasta" (1618-1658).


LOVER, SAMUEL, an Irish novelist and poet, born in Dublin; started
as a painter, but soon gave himself to literature; was the author of
"Rory O'More" and "Handy Andy," as also of some lyrics and ballads of a
stirring character (1797-1868).


LOW CHURCH, that section of the Church of England which, in contrast
with the High Church party, is not exclusive in its assertion of Church
authority and observances, and in contrast with the Broad Church party is
narrowly evangelical in its teaching.


LOW LATIN, Latin as spoken and written in the Middle Ages, being a
degeneration of the classical which began as early as the time of Cicero
and developed unchecked with the dismemberment of the Roman empire.


LOW MASS, mass performed by a single priest and without musical
accompaniment.


LOW SUNDAY, name given in Catholic countries to the next Sunday
after Easter, in contrast with the style of the festival just closed.


LOWE, SIR HUDSON, English general, born in Ireland; served with
credit in various military enterprises, and was appointed governor of St.
Helena in 1815, and held that office during Napoleon's incarceration
there; a much abused-man for his treatment of his prisoner, particularly
by the French, who dub him "Napoleon's jailer"; died in London in poor
circumstances; wrote a defence of his conduct (1770-1844).


LOWELL, JAMES RUSSELL, American essayist, poet, and diplomatist,
born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, son of a clergyman; graduated at
Harvard in 1838, studied law, but acquiring extensive scholarship devoted
himself to literature; volumes of poems were published by him in 1840 and
1844, but the Mexican War of 1846 and the Civil War of 1861-65 called
forth respectively the first and second series of "Biglow Papers," in
rustic dialect, the highest expression of his genius and the finest
modern English satire; he was an ardent abolitionist; succeeding
Longfellow in the chair of Modern Languages and Literature in Harvard in
1855, he visited Europe to study, returned as U.S. minister to Spain in
1877, was transferred to England 1880-1885; of his prose work "My Study
Windows" and "Among my Books" are essays on literary subjects, "Fireside
Travels" contain reminiscences, and his last work was a "Life of
Hawthorne"; he died at Cambridge in the house of his birth (1818-1891).


LOWER EMPIRE, name given to the Byzantine empire.


LOWESTOFT (23), seaport and watering-place at the mouth of the
Waveney, in Suffolk, 120 m. NE. of London, the most easterly town in
England; has a good harbour, an old parish church, and a large
fish-market; the Dutch were defeated off Lowestoft in 1665.


LOWTH, ROBERT, a distinguished English prelate, born in Hants; was
professor of Poetry in Oxford, and bishop in succession of St. Davids,
Oxford, and London; wrote "Prelectiones" on the poetry of the Hebrews, a
celebrated work, and executed a translation of Isaiah (1710-1787).


LOYOLA, IGNATIUS, the founder of the Order of the Jesuits, born in
the castle of Loyola, in the Basque Provinces of Spain, of a noble
Spanish family; entered the army, and served with distinction, but being
severely wounded at the siege of Pampeluna, he gave himself up to a life
of austere religious devotion, and conceived the idea of enlisting and
organising a spiritual army for the defence of the Church at home and the
propagation of the faith in the realms of heathendom; it seemed to him a
time when such an organisation should be formed, and he by-and-by got a
number of kindred spirits to join him, with the result that he and his
confederates did, on Ascension Day, 1534, solemnly pledge themselves in
the subterranean chapel of the Abbey of Montserrat to, through life and
death, embark in this great undertaking; the pledge thus given was
confirmed by the pope, Pope Pius III., the Order formed, and Ignatius, in
1547, installed as general, with absolute authority subject only to the
Pope, to receive canonisation by Gregory XV. in 1622 (1481-1566).


LUBBOCK, SIR JOHN, scientist, born in London; banker by profession;
as a member of Parliament has accomplished several economic reforms; is
author of "Prehistoric Times," "The Origin of Civilisation and the
Primitive Condition of Man," and various books on natural science; his
"Pleasures of Life" has been very popular, and gone through between 30
and 40 editions; _b_. 1834.


LUeBECK (64), a German free city on the Trave, an old-fashioned
place, but with wide, open streets, 12 m. from the Baltic, 40 m. NE. of
Hamburg; joined the North German Federation in 1866, and the Customs
Union in 1868. It has a 12th-century cathedral, some fine old churches,
scientific and art collections; with unimportant industries; its Baltic
and German transit trade is extensive.


LUCAN, a Latin poet, born at Corduba (Cordova), in Spain; was a
nephew of Seneca, and brought early to Rome; gave offence to Nero, and
was banished from the city; joined in a conspiracy against the tyrant,
and was convicted, whereupon he caused his veins to be opened and bled to
death, repeating the while the speech he had composed of a wounded
soldier on the battlefield dying a like death; he was the author of a
poem entitled "Pharsalia" on the civil war between Caesar and Pompey
(39-65).


LUCARIS, CYRIL, eminent ecclesiastic in the Greek Church, born in
Crete, who embraced and propagated Protestantism; became a victim of
persecution, and had a mysterious fate (1572-1637).


LUCCA (20), cap. of the Italian prov. of Lucca (309), on the
Serchio, 12 m. NE. of Pisa; has an extensive trade in olive-oil, silk,
and capers, the specialty of the province. Its cathedral has a very
ancient cedar crucifix, fine paintings, and valuable archives. There are
other ancient churches, scientific and artistic institutes, and a
wonderful aqueduct of 459 arches. The natives are known over Europe as
stucco figure-sellers and organ-grinders.


LUCERNE (36), a Swiss canton E. of Berne, mountainous in the S.,
where cattle are pastured and much cheese made; in the N. and in the
valleys fertile with corn and fruit crops; is German speaking, and Roman
Catholic; its highest elevation, Mount Pilatus, is 7000 ft. Stretching
from the eastern corner is Lake Lucerne, one of the most beautiful in
Europe. The cap. Lucerne (20), on the shores of the lake, is a busy
tourist centre; outside its walls is the famous Lion of Lucerne, designed
by Thorwaldsen, in memory of the Swiss Guard slain while defending the
Tuileries in Paris in 1792, and cut out of the solid rock.


LUCIAN, a Greek writer, born in Samosata, in Syria, in the early
part of the 2nd century; he travelled much in his youth; acquired a
cynical view of the world, and gave himself to ridicule the philosophical
sects and the pagan mythology; his principal writings consist of
"Dialogues," of which the "Dialogues of the Dead" are the best known, the
subject being one affording him scope for exposing the vanity of human
pursuits; he was an out and out sceptic, found nothing worthy of
reverence in heaven or on earth.


LUCIFER (i. e. light-bringer), name given to Venus as the morning
star, and by the Church Fathers to Satan in interpretation of Isaiah xiv.
12.


LUeCKE, FRIEDRICH, German theologian, professor first at Bonn and
then at Goettingen; wrote commentaries on John's Gospel and the Apocalypse
(1791-1855).


LUCKNOW (273), fourth city in India, cap. of the prov. of Oudh, on
the Gumti, a tributary of the Ganges, 200 m. NW. of Benares; is a centre
of Indian culture and Mohammedan theology, an industrial and commercial
city. It has many magnificent buildings, Canning and Martiniere Colleges,
various schools and Government offices. It manufactures brocades, shawls,
muslins, and embroideries, and trades in country products, European
cloth, salt, and leather. Its siege from July 1857 to March 1858, its
relief by Havelock and Outram, and final deliverance by Sir Colin
Campbell, form the most stirring incidents of the Indian Mutiny.


LUCRETIA, a Roman matron, the wife of Collatinus, whose rape by a
son of Tarquinus Superbus led to the dethronement of the tyrant, the
expulsion of his family from Rome, and the establishment of the Roman
republic.


LUCRETIUS, TITUS CARUS, a Roman poet of whose personal history
nothing is known, only that he was the author of a poem entitled "De
Rerum Natura," a philosophic, didactic composition in six books, in which
he expounds the atomic theory of Leucippus, and the philosophy of
Epicurus; the philosophy of the work commends itself only to the atheist
and the materialist, but the style is the admiration of all scholars, and
has ensured its translation into most modern languages (about 95-31 B.C.).


LUCULLUS, LUCIUS, a Roman general, celebrated as conqueror of
Mithridates, king of Pontus, and for the luxurious life he afterwards led
at Rome on the wealth he had amassed in Asia and brought home with him;
one day as he sat down to dine alone, and he observed his servant had
provided for him a less sumptuous repast than usual, he took him sharply
to task, and haughtily remarked, "Are you not aware, sirrah, that
Lucullus dines with Lucullus to-day?"


LUDDISM, fanatical opposition to the introduction of machinery as it
originally manifested itself among the hand-loom weavers of the Midlands.


LUDDITES name assumed by the anti-machinery rioters of 1812-1861,
after a Leicestershire idiot, Ned Ludd, of 1780; appearing first at
Nottingham, the agitation spread through Derby, Leicester, Cheshire,
Lancashire, and Yorkshire, finally merging in the wider industrial and
political agitations and riots that marked the years that followed the
peace after Waterloo.


LUDLOW, EDMUND, a republican leader in the Civil War against Charles
I., born in Wiltshire of good family; entered the army of the Parliament,
and was present in successive engagements, but opposed Cromwell on his
assumption of the Protectorate, and was put under arrest; reasserted his
republicanism on Cromwell's death, but died in exile after the
Restoration; left "Memoirs" (1630-1693).


LUDOVICUS VIVES, a humourist, born in Valentia, Spain; studied at
Paris, wrote against scholasticism, taught at Oxford, was imprisoned for
opposing Henry VIII.'s divorce; died at Bruges (1472-1540).


LUGA`NO, a lake partly in the Swiss canton of Ticino and partly in
the Italian province of Como, 15 m. by 2 m., in the midst of picturesque
grand scenery, with a town of the name on the NW. side amid vineyards and
olive plantations.


LUINI, BERNARDINO, a painter of the Lombard school, born at Luino,
in the territory of Milan, and a pupil of Leonardo da Vinci, so that some
of his works, which though they show a grace and delicacy of their own,
pass for those of his master; is famed for his works in oil as well as in
fresco; is, in Ruskin's regard, one of the master painters of the world
(1460-1540).


LUKE or LUCANUS, author of the third Gospel, as well as the
Acts, born in Antioch, a Greek by birth and a physician by profession,
probably a convert, as he was a companion, of St. Paul; is said to have
suffered martyrdom and been buried at Constantinople; is the patron saint
of artists, and represented in Christian art with an ox lying near him,
or in the act of painting; his Gospel appears to have been written before
the year 63, and shows a Pauline interest in Christ, who is represented
as the Saviour of Jew and Gentile alike; it was written for a Gentile
Christian and in correspondence with eye-witnesses of Christ's life and
death.


LULLI, a composer of operatic music, born in Provence; was director
of the French opera in the reign of Louis XIV. (1633-1687).


LULLY, RAYMOND, the _Doctor Illuminatus_, as he was called, born at
Palma, in Majorca, who was early smitten with a zeal for the conversion
of the Mohammedans, in the prosecution of which mission he invented a new
method of dialectic, called after him _Ars Lullia_; held public
discussions with the Mohammedans, who showed themselves as zealous to
convert him as he was to convert them, till he ventured in his over-zeal
when in Africa among them to threaten them with divine judgment if they
did not abjure their faith, upon which they waxed furious, dragged him
out of the city, and stoned him to death in the year 1315; his works,
several on alchemy, fill 16 volumes.


LUNAR CYCLE, a period of time at the close of which the new moons
return on the same days of the year.


LUNAR MONTH, a month of 29 days, the time of the revolution of the
moon, a lunar year consisting of 12 times the number.


LUNAR THEORY, an explanation by mathematical reasoning of
perturbations in the movements of the moon founded on the law of
gravitation.


LUNAR YEAR, a period of 12 synodic lunar months, being about 354.5
days.


LUND (14), a city in the S. of Sweden, 10 m. NE. of Malmoe, once the
capital of the Danish kingdom, the seat of an archbishop, with a
Romanesque cathedral and a flourishing university.


LUNDY ISLAND, a precipitous rugged island 3 m. long by 1 m. broad,
belonging to Devon, with the remains of an old castle, and frequented by
myriads of sea-fowl.


LUeNEBURG (21), on the Ilmenau, 30 m. SE. of Hamburg, an ancient
German city with old Gothic churches, once the capital of an independent
duchy, now in Hanover; has salt and gypsum mines, iron and chemical
manufactures; the British royal house is descended from the princes of
Brunswick-Lueneburg.


LUPERCALIA, a Roman festival held on Feb. 15 in honour of Lupercus,
regarded as the god of fertility, in the celebration of which dogs and
goats were sacrificed and their skins cut up into thongs, with which the
priests ran through the city striking every one, particularly women, that
threw themselves in their way.


LUPERCUS, an ancient Italian god, worshipped by shepherds as the
protector of their flocks against wolves.


LUPUS, a chronic disease of the skin, characterised by the
tuberculous eruptions which eat into the skin, particularly of the face,
and disfigure it.


LUSATIA, a district of Germany, between the Elbe and the Oder,
originally divided into Upper and Lower, belongs partly to Saxony and
partly to Prussia; it swarmed at one time with Wends.


LUSIAD or LUSIADES, a poem of Camoens in ten cantos, in
celebration of the discoveries of the Portuguese in the East Indies, and
in which Vasco da Gama is the principal figure; it is a genuine national
epic, in which the poet passes in review all the celebrated exploits and
feats that glorify the history of Portugal.


LUSITANIA, the ancient name of Portugal, still used as the name of
it in modern poetry.


LUSTRUM, a sacrifice for expiation and purification offered by one
of the censors of Rome in name of the Roman people at the close of the
taking of the census, and which took place after a period of five years,
so that the name came to denote a period of that length.


LUTETIA, the ancient name of Paris, _Lutetia Parisiorum_, mud-town
of the borderers, as Carlyle translates it.


LUTHER, MARTIN, the great Protestant Reformer, born at Eisleben, in
Prussian Saxony, the son of a miner, was born poor and brought up poor,
familiar from his childhood with hardship; was sent to study law at
Erfurt, but was one day at the age of 19 awakened to a sense of higher
interests, and in spite of remonstrances became a monk; was for a time in
deep spiritual misery, till one day he found a Bible in the convent,
which taught him for the first time that "a man was not saved by singing
masses, but by the infinite grace of God"; this was his awakening from
death to life, and to a sense of his proper mission as a man; at this
stage the Elector of Saxony was attracted to him, and he appointed him
preacher and professor at Wittenberg; on a visit to Rome his heart sank
within him, but he left it to its evil courses to pursue his own way
apart; if Rome had let him alone he would have let it, but it would not;
monk Tetzel arrived at Wittenberg selling indulgences, and his
indignation was roused; remonstrance after remonstrance followed, but the
Pope gave no heed, till the agitation being troublesome, he issued his
famous "fire-decree," condemning Luther's writings to the flames; this
answer fired Luther to the quick, and he "took the indignant step of
burning the decree in 1520 at the Elster Gate of Wittenberg, Wittenberg
looking on with shoutings, the whole world looking on"; after this Luther
was summoned to the Diet of Worms, and he appeared there before the
magnates, lay and clerical, of the German empire on April 17, 1521; how
he demeaned himself on that high occasion is known to all the world, and
his answer as well: "Here stand I; I can do no other; so help me God";
"it was the grandest moment in the modern history of man"; of the
awakening this produced Luther was the ruling spirit, as he had been the
moving one, and he continued to be so to the end of his life; his
writings show the man as well as his deeds, and amid all the turmoil that
enveloped him he found leisure to write and leave behind him 25 quarto
volumes; it is known the German Bible in use is his work, executed by him
in the Castle of Wartburg; it was begun by him with his back to the wall,
as it were, and under the protestation, as it seemed to him, of the
prince of darkness himself, and finished in this obstructive element
pretty much throughout, the New Testament in 1522, the Pentateuch in
1523, and the whole, the Apocrypha included, in 1534; he was fond of
music, and uttered many an otherwise unutterable thing in the tones of
his flute; "the devils fled from his flute," he says; "death-defiance on
the one hand, and such love of music on the other, I could call these,"
says Carlyle, "the two opposite poles of a great soul, between these two
all great things had room.... Luther," he adds, "was a true great man,
great in intellect, in courage, in affection, and integrity,... great as
an Alpine mountain, but not setting up to be great at all--his, as all
greatness is, an unconscious greatness" (1488-1546).


LUTHERANISM, that form of Protestantism which prevails in Norway,
Sweden, Denmark, and Northern Germany. See LUTHERANS.


LUTHERANS, the name given to that school of the Protestant Church
which accepted Luther's doctrine, especially that of the Eucharist, in
opposition to that of the members of the Reformed Church, who assented to
the views in that matter of Zwingli, the Swiss Reformer; the former
maintaining the presence of Christ in the Eucharist, and that the grace
of Christ is communicated in the celebration of it, and the latter
maintaining that it is a merely commemorative ordinance, and the means of
grace to the believing recipient only.


LUTTERWORTH, a small town in Leicestershire, on the Swift, 8 m. NE.
of Rugby, of the church of which Wiclif was rector, and where he was
buried, though his bones were afterwards, in 1428, dug up and burned, and
the ashes cast into the river.


LUeTZEN, a small town in Prussian Saxony, the vicinity of it the
scene of a victory of Gustavus Adolphus in 1632, and of another by
Napoleon over the combined forces of Russia and Prussia in 1813.


LUX, the name given to the unit of the intensity of electric light.


LUX, ADAM, a young Parisian; smitten with love for Charlotte Corday,
proposed a statue to her with the inscription "Greater than Brutus,"
which brought him to the guillotine.


LUXEMBURG (211), grand-duchy, a small, independent territory at the
corner where Belgium, France, and Rhenish Prussia meet, is a plateau
watered by the Moselle on its eastern boundary, and the tributary Sauer;
is well wooded and fertile, yielding wheat, flax, hemp, and wine. Iron
ore is mined and smelted; leather, pottery, sugar, and spirits
manufactured. The population is Low-German and Roman Catholic; the
language of the educated, French. The government is in the hands of a
grand-duke, the Duke of Nassau, and a house of 42 representatives. For
commercial purposes Luxemburg belongs to the German Customs Union. The
capital is LUXEMBURG (18). There is a Belgian province of
LUXEMBURG (212), until 1839 part of the grand-duchy.


LUZON (3,200), the largest of the Philippines; about one-half larger
than Ireland; is the most northerly of the group; is clad with forests,
and yields grain, sugar, hemp, and numerous tropical products. The
capital is Manila.


LYCAON, a king of Arcadia; changed into a wolf for offering human
flesh to Zeus, who came, disguised as mortal, to his palace on the same
errand as the angels who visited Lot in Sodom. According to another
tradition he was consumed, along with his sons, by fire from heaven.


LYCEUM, a promenade in Athens where Aristotle taught his pupils as
he walked to and fro within its precincts.


LYCIAS, an Athenian orator, who flourished in the 4th century B.C.;
assisted in the expulsion of the Thirty Tyrants, and distributed among
the citizens his large fortune which the Tyrants had confiscated.


LYCIDAS, the name of an exquisite dirge by Milton over the death by
drowning of his friend Edward King.


LYCURGUS, the legislator of Sparta, who lived in the 9th century
B.C.; in the interest of it as king visited the wise in other lands, and
returned with the wise lessons he had learned from them to frame a code
of laws for his country, which was fast lapsing into a state of anarchy;
when he had finished his work under the sanction of the oracle at Delphi
he set put again on a journey to other lands, but previously took oath of
the citizens that they would observe his laws till his return; it was his
purpose not to return, and he never did, in order to bind his countrymen
to maintain the constitution he gave them inviolate for ever.


LYDGATE, JOHN, an early English poet; was a monk of Bury St. Edmunds
in the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th centuries; was a teacher
of rhetoric as well as a poet, and a man of some note in his day.


LYDIA, a country of Asia Minor; seat of an early civilisation, and a
centre of influences which affected both the religion and culture of
Greece; was noted for its music and purple dyes.


LYELL, SIR CHARLES, celebrated English geologist, born at Kinnordy,
in Forfarshire; bred for and called to the bar; he left his practice, and
gave himself to the study of geology, to which he had been attracted by
Alexander Buckland's lectures when he was at Oxford; his great work was
his "Principles of Geology," which, published in 1830, created quite a
revolution in the science; it was followed by his "Student's Elements of
Geology," which was modified by his conversion to Darwin's views, and by
"Antiquity of Man," written in defence of Darwin's theory (17971875).


LYLY, JOHN, English dramatist, born in Kent; was the author of nine
plays on classical subjects, written for the court, which were preceded
in 1579 by his once famous "Euphues, or Anatomy of Wit," followed by a
second part next year, and entitled "Euphues and his England," and that
from the fantastic, pompous, and affected style in which they were
written gave a new word, Euphuism, to the English language (1553-1606).


LYNCH LAW, the name given in America to the trial and punishment of
offenders without form of law, or by mob law; derived from the name of a
man Lynch, dubbed Judge, who being referred to used to administer justice
in the far West in this informal way.


LYNDHURST, JOHN SINGLETON COPLEY, BARON, thrice Lord Chancellor of
England, born at Boston, Massachusetts, son of an artist; was brought up
in London, educated at Cambridge, and called to the bar in 1804;
acquiring fame in the treason trials of the second decade, he entered
Parliament in 1808, was Solicitor-General 1819, Attorney-General 1819,
Master of the Rolls 1826, and Lord Chancellor in three governments
1827-30; Chief Baron of the Exchequer 1830-34; he was Lord Chancellor in
Peel's administrations of 1834-35 and 1841-46; he was great as a debater,
and a clear-headed lawyer, but not earnest enough for a statesman
(1772-1863).


LYNEDOCH, THOMAS GRAHAM, LORD, soldier, born in Perthshire; raised
in 1793 the 90th Regiment of Foot, and served with it at Quiberon and
Isle Dieu; thereafter distinguished himself in various ways at Minorca
1798, and Malta 1800, in the Peninsular wars, and in Holland; founded the
Senior United Service Club in 1817; was created baron and general 1821,
and died in London (1748-1843).


LYON COURT, the Herald's College of Scotland, consisting of three
heralds and three pursuivants.


LYON KING OF ARMS, the legal heraldic officer of Scotland, who
presides over the Lyon Court.


LYONS (398), the second city of France, at the junction of the Rhone
and Saone, 250 m. S. of Paris; has a Roman Catholic university, and
valuable museum, library, and art collections, many old churches and
buildings, and schools of art and industries; the staple industry is
silk, weaving, dyeing, and printing; there are also chemical, machinery,
and fancy ware manufactures, and it is an emporium of commerce between
Central and Southern Europe; of late years Lyons has been a hot-bed of
ultra-republicanism.


LYRIC POETRY, poetry originally accompanied by the lyre, in which
the poet sings his own passions, sure of a sympathetic response from
others in like circumstances with himself.


LYSANDER, a Spartan general and admiral who put an end to the
Peloponnesian War by defeat of the Athenian fleet off AEgospotami, and of
whom Plutarch says in characterisation of him, he knew how to sew the
skin of the fox on that of the lion; fell in battle in 395 B.C.


LYSIMACHUS, one of the generals of Alexander the Great, who became
king of Thrace and afterwards of Macedonia; _d_. 281 B.C.


LYTTON, EDWARD ROBERT, EARL OF, statesman and novelist, under the
_nom de plume_ of Owen Meredith; entered the diplomatic service at an
early age, became viceroy of India in 1876, and ambassador at Paris in
1892.


LYTTON, GEORGE EDWARD BULWER, LORD, statesman and novelist, born in
London; entered Parliament at the age of 26, began his parliamentary
career as a Whig, but became a Conservative and ranked in that party for
the greater part of his life; "Pelham," published in 1828, was his first
novel, and this was followed by a long list of others of endless variety,
all indicative of the conspicuous ability of the author, and to the last
giving no sign of decay in power; he was the author of plays as well as
novels (1803-1873).