Articles listed under letter "C"

[1907 edition]

CAABA, an ancient Arab temple, a small square structure in the grand
mosque of Mecca, with a mysterious black stone, probably an aerolite,
built in it, on which all pilgrims who visit the shrine imprint a kiss;
"the Keblah of all Moslem, the eyes of innumerable praying men being
turned towards it from all the quarters of the compass five times a day."


CABAL`, a secret intriguing faction in a State, a name applied to a
junto of five ministers of Charles II. in power from 1668 to 1673, the
initials of whose names go to make up the word; their names were
Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, and Lauderdale; derived from
CABALA (q. v.).



CAB`ALA, a secret science alleged to have been divinely imparted to
Moses and preserved by tradition, by means of which the Rabbis affected
to interpret the pretended mystic sense of the words, letters, and very
accents of the Hebrew Scriptures, a science which really owes its
existence to a dissatisfaction in the rabbinical mind with the
traditional literal interpretation, and a sense that there is more in
Scripture than meets the ear. The name comes from a Hebrew word
suggesting "to receive," and denotes "that which is received" or
tradition.


CABALLERO, FERNAN, the _nom de plume_ of Cecilia Boehl, a popular
Spanish authoress, born in Switzerland, of German descent; a collector of
folk tales; wrote charmingly; told stories of Spanish, particularly
Andalusian, peasant life (1797-1877).


CABANEL, ALEXANDRE, a French painter, born at Montpellier
(1828-1889).


CABANIS, PIERRE JEAN GEORGE, a celebrated French medical man, born
in Cosnac, in the dep. of Charente Inferieure, a pronounced materialist
in philosophy, and friend of Mirabeau; attended him in his last illness,
and published an account of it; his materialism was of the grossest;
treated the soul as a nonentity; and held that the brain secretes thought
just as the liver secretes bile (1757-1808).


CABEL, a celebrated painter of the Dutch school, born at Ryswick
(1631-1698).


CABET, ETIENNE, a French communist, born in Dijon; a leader of the
Carbonari; provoked prosecution, and fled to England; wrote a history of
the First Revolution, in which he defended the Jacobins; author of the
"Voyage en Icarie," in description of a communistic Utopia, which became
the text-book of a communistic sect called "Icarians," a body of whom he
headed to carry out his schemes in America, first in Texas and then at
Nauvoo, but failed; died at St. Louis broken-hearted (1788-1856).


CABI`RI, certain mysterious demonic beings to whom mystic honours
were paid in Lemnos and elsewhere in Greece, in connection with
nature-worship, and especially with that of DEMETER and
DIONYSUS (q. v.).


CABLE, GEORGE WASHINGTON, a journalist, born at New Orleans, has
written interestingly on, and created an interest in, Creole life in
America; _b_. 1844.


CABOT, GIOVANNI, a Venetian pilot, born at Genoa, settled in
Bristol, entered the service of Henry VII., and discovered part of the
mainland of N. America, at Labrador, about 1497: _d_. 1498.


CABOT, SEBASTIAN, son of the preceding, born either in Venice or
Bristol; accompanied his father to N. America; sought service as a
navigator, first in Spain then in England, but failed; returned to Spain;
attempted under Charles V. to plant colonies in Brazil with no success,
for which he was imprisoned and banished; was the first to notice the
variation of the magnetic needle, and to open up to England trade with
Russia (1474-1557).


CABRAL, PEDRO ALVAREZ, a Portuguese navigator, sailing for the
Indies, drifted on the coast of Brazil, on which he planted the
Portuguese flag, 1500, and of which he is accounted by some the
discoverer, continued his course, and established a factory at Calicut in
1501 (1460-1526).


CABRE`RA, one of the Balearic Isles, used as a penal settlement by
Spain, produces wild olives.


CABRERA, a Spanish general, born at Tortosa, Catalonia, a zealous
supporter of the claims of Don Carlos, took up arms in his behalf; died
in England; he was an unscrupulous adversary (1810-1877).


CABUL`, or KABUL (50), cap. of a province of the name in
Afghanistan, in a mild climate, on an elevated plateau of great
fertility, 6000 ft. in height, on the high route between Central Asia and
the Punjab, a great highway of trade, and a depot for European goods.


CACCIA, Italian fresco-painter, did altar-pieces; his best work,
"Deposition from the Cross," at Novara; _d_. 1625.


CACERAS (350), a Spanish province in the N. of Estremadura; the name
also of its capital (14), famous for its bacon and sausages, as the
province is for cattle-rearing.


CACHAR (313), a great tea-growing district in Assam.


CACHE, name given in Canada to a hole in the ground for hiding
provisions when they prove cumbersome to carry.


CACHET, LETTRE DE, a warrant issued in France before the Revolution,
under the royal seal, for the arrest and imprisonment of a person, often
obtained to gratify private ends; abolished in 1790.


CA`CUS, a mythological brigand of gigantic stature who occupied a
cave in Mount Aventine, represented by Virgil as breathing smoke and
flames of fire; stole the oxen of Hercules as he was asleep, dragging
them to his cave tail foremost to deceive the owner; strangled by
Hercules in his rage at the deception quite as much as the theft.


CADASTRE, a register of the landed proprietors of a district, and
the extent of their estates, with maps illustrative called Cadastral
Maps.


CADE, JACK, an Irish adventurer, headed an insurrection in Kent, in
1450, in the reign of Henry VI.; encamped with his following on
Blackheath; demanded of the king redress of grievances; was answered by
an armed force, which he defeated; entered the city, could not prevent
his followers from plundering; the citizens retaliating, he had to flee,
but was overtaken and slain.


CADEMOSTO, a Venetian in the service of Portugal, discovered the
Cape de Verde Islands in 1457; wrote the first book giving an account of
modern voyages, published posthumously (1432-1480).


CADIZ (62), one of the chief commercial ports in Spain, in
Andalusia; founded by the Phoenicians about 1100 B.C.; called Gades by
the Romans; at the NW. extremity of the Isle of Leon, and separated from
the rest of the island by a channel crossed by bridges; it is 7 m. from
Xeres and 50 m. from Gibraltar, and carries on a large export trade.


CAD`MUS, a semi-mythological personage, founder of Thebes, in
Boeotia, to whom is ascribed the introduction of the Greek alphabet from
Phoenicia and the invention of writing; in the quest of his sister
Europa, was told by the oracle at Delphi to follow a cow and build a city
where she lay down; arrived at the spot where the cow lay down, he sent,
with a view to its sacrifice, his companions to a well guarded by a
dragon, which devoured them; slew the dragon; sowed its teeth, which
sprang up into a body of armed men, who speared each other to death, all
but five, who, the story goes, became the forefathers of Thebes.


CADOUDAL, GEORGES, a brave man, chief of the CHOUANS (q. v.),
born in Brittany, the son of a farmer; tried hard and took up arms
to restore the Bourbons in the teeth of the Republic, but was defeated;
refused to serve under Bonaparte, who would fain have enlisted him,
having seen in him "a mind cast in the true mould"; came over from
London, whither he had retired, on a secret mission from Charles X.; was
suspected of evil designs against the person of Bonaparte; arrested, and,
after a short trial, condemned and executed, having confessed his
intention to overthrow the Republic and establish Louis XVIII. on the
throne (1769-1804).


CADUCEUS, the winged rod of Hermes, entwined with two serpents;
originally a simple olive branch; was in the hands of the god possessed
of magical virtues; it was the symbol of peace.


CAEDMON, an English poet of the 7th century, the fragment of a hymn
by whom, preserved by Bede, is the oldest specimen extant of English
poetry; wrote a poem on the beginning of things at the call of a voice
from heaven, saying as he slept, "Caedmon, come sing me some song"; and
thereupon he began to sing, as Stopford Brooke reports, the story of
Genesis and Exodus, many other tales in the sacred Scriptures, and the
story of Christ and the Apostles, and of heaven and hell to come.


CAEN (45), a fine old Norman town, capital of Calvados, about 80 m.
SE. of Cherbourg; lace the chief manufacture; the burial-place of William
the Conqueror, and the native place of Charlotte Corday; it is a
well-built town, and has fine old public buildings, a large library, and
a noble collection of pictures.


CAER`LEON, a small old town in Monmouthshire, on the Usk, 21/2 m. NE.
of Newport; celebrated by Tennyson in connection with Arthurian legend;
it is a very ancient place, and contains relics of Roman times.


CAESALPINUS, Italian natural philosopher, born at Arezzo; was
professor of botany at Pisa; was forerunner of Harvey and Linnaeus;
discovered sex in plants, and gave hints on their classification
(1519-1603).


CAESAR, name of an old Roman family claiming descent from the Trojan
AEneas, which the emperors of Rome from Augustus to Nero of right
inherited, though the title was applied to succeeding emperors and to the
heirs-apparent of the Western and the Eastern Empires; it survives in the
titles of the Kaiser of Germany and the Czar of Russia.


CAESAR, CAIUS JULIUS, pronounced the greatest man of antiquity, by
birth and marriage connected with the democratic party; early provoked
the jealousy of Sulla, then dictator, and was by an edict of proscription
against him obliged to quit the city; on the death of Sulla returned to
Rome; was elected to one civic office after another, and finally to the
consulship. United with Pompey and Crassus in the First Triumvirate (60
B.C.); was appointed to the government of Gaul, which he subdued after
nine years to the dominion of Rome; his successes awoke the jealousy of
Pompey, who had gone over to the aristocratic side, and he was recalled;
this roused Caesar, and crossing the Rubicon with his victorious troops,
he soon saw all Italy lying at his feet (49 B.C.); pursued Pompey, who
had fled to Greece, and defeated him at Pharsalia (48 B.C.); was
thereupon elected dictator and consul for five years, distinguishing
himself in Egypt and elsewhere; returned to Rome (47 B.C.); conceived
and executed vast schemes for the benefit of the city, and became the
idol of its citizens; when he was assassinated on the Ides (the 15th) of
March, 44 B.C., in the fifty-sixth year of his age; _b_.100 B.C.

 

CAESAREA, a Syrian seaport, 30 m. N. of Joppa, built in honour of
Augustus Caesar by Herod the Great, now in ruins, though a place of note
in the days of the Crusades. Also C. PHILIPPI, at the source of the
Jordan, whence Christ, on assuring Himself that His disciples were
persuaded of His divine sonship, turned to go up to Jerusalem, and so by
His sacrifice perfect their faith in Him.


CAGLIARI (44), the cap of Sardinia, and the chief port, on the S.
coast, was a colony of Jews from the time of Tiberius till 1492, whence
they were expelled by the Spaniards; lies on the slopes of a hill, the
summit of which is 300 ft. high, and is on the site of an ancient
Carthaginian town.


CAGLIARI, PAOLO, proper name of PAUL VERONESE (q. v.).


CAGLIOSTRO, COUNT ALESSANDRO DI, assumed name of an arch-impostor,
his real name being Giuseppe Balsamo, born in Palermo, of poor parents;
early acquired a smattering of chemistry and medicine, by means of which
he perpetrated the most audacious frauds, which, when detected in one
place were repeated with even more brazen effrontery in another; married
a pretty woman named Lorenza Feliciani, who became an accomplice;
professed supernatural powers, and wrung large sums from his dupes
wherever they went, after which they absconded to Paris and lived in
extravagance; here he was thrown into the Bastille for complicity in the
DIAMOND NECKLACE AFFAIR (q. v.); on his wife turning informer,
he was consigned to the tender mercies of the Inquisition, and committed
to the fortress of San Leone, where he died at 52, his wife having
retired into a convent (1743-1795). See CARLYLE'S "MISCELLANIES"
for an account of his character and career.


CAGNOLA, LUIGI, MARQUIS OF, Italian architect, born at Milan; his
greatest work, the "Arco della Pace," of white marble, in his native
city, the execution of which occupied him over 30 years (1762-1833).


CAGOTS, a race in the SW. of France of uncertain origin; treated as
outcasts in the Middle Ages, owing, it has been supposed, to some taint
of leprosy, from which, it is argued, they were by their manner of life
in course of time freed.


CAHORS (13), a town in the dep. of Lot, in the S. of France, 71 m.
N. of Toulouse, with interesting Roman and other relics of antiquity.


CAIAPHAS, the High-Priest of the Jews who condemned Christ to death
as a violator of the law of Moses.


CAIAPOS, a wild savage race in the woods of Brazil, hard to persuade
to reconcile themselves to a settled life.


CAICOS, a group of small islands connected with the Bahamas, but
annexed to Jamaica since 1874.


CAILLE, LOUIS DE LA, astronomer, studied at the Cape of Good Hope,
registered stars of the Southern Hemisphere, numbering 9000, before
unknown; calculated the table of eclipses for 1800 years (1713-1762).


CAILLET, a chief of the Jacquerie, a peasant insurrection in France
in 1358, taken prisoner and tortured to death.


CAILLIAUD, French mineralogist, born in Nantes, travelled in Egypt,
Nubia, and Ethiopia, collecting minerals and making observations
(1787-1869).


CAILLIE, RENE, French traveller in Africa, born in Poitou, the first
European to penetrate as far as Timbuctoo, in Central Africa, which he
did in 1828; the temptation was a prize of 10,000 marks offered by the
Geographical Society of Paris, which he received with a pension of 1000
besides (1799-1839).


CAIN, according to Genesis, the first-born of Adam and Eve, and
therefore of the race, and the murderer of his brother Abel.


CAIN, THOMAS HENRY HALL, eminent novelist, born in Cheshire, of Manx
blood; began life as architect and took to journalism; author of a number
of novels bearing on Manx life, such as the "Deemster" and the "Manxman";
his most recent novel, the "Christian," his greatest but most ambiguous
work, and much challenged in England, though less so in America; it has
been translated into most of the languages of Europe, where the verdict
is divided; _b_. 1853.


CA IRA, "It will go on," a popular song in France during the
Revolution, said to have been a phrase of Benjamin Franklin's, which he
was in the habit of using in answering inquirers about the progress of
the American revolution by his friends in France.


CAIRD, EDWARD, brother of the following, interpreter of Kant and
Hegel; succeeded Jowett as master of Balliol; has written on the
"Evolution of Religion," and edited the lectures and sermons of his
brother; _b_. 1825.


CAIRD, JOHN, an eloquent Scotch preacher, born at Greenock,
Principal of Glasgow University, famous for a sermon entitled "The
Religion of Common Life" preached before the Queen at Crathie in 1855;
made a special study of the philosophy of religion, and wrote eloquently
on it, more especially the Christian version of it (1820-1898).


CAIRN, a heap of stones often, though not always, loosely thrown
together, generally by way of a sepulchral monument, and it would seem
sometimes in execration of some foul deed.


CAIRNES, JOHN ELLIOT, a political economist of the school of John
Stuart Mill with modifications, born in co. Louth, Ireland; professor
successively in Dublin, Galway, and London; author of works on political
economy (1823-1875).


CAIRNGORM, a yellowish-brown variety of rock-crystal, so called from
being found, among other places, on one of the Scottish Grampians, in
Aberdeenshire, so named.


CAIRNS, HUGH MACCALMONT, EARL, lawyer and politician, born in co.
Down, Ireland; called to the English bar; entered Parliament,
representing Belfast; became Lord Chancellor under Disraeli's government
in 1868, and again in 1874; took an active interest in philanthropic
movements (1819-1885).


CAIRO (400), cap. of Egypt, and largest city in Africa, on the right
bank of the Nile, just above the Delta, 120 m. SE. of Alexandria, covers
an extensive area on a broad sandy plain, and presents a strange
agglomeration of ancient and modern elements. The modern city is the
fourth founded in succession on the same site, and remains of the former
cities are included in it, old walls, gateways, narrow streets, and
latticed houses, palaces, and 400 mosques. These, though much spoiled by
time and tourists, still represent the brightest period of Saracenic art.
The most modern part of the city consists of broad boulevards, with
European-built villas, hotels, &c., and has all the advantages of modern
civic appliances. There is a rich museum, and university with 2000
students. Extensive railway communication and the Nile waterway induce a
large transport trade, but there is little industry. The population is
mixed; the townsfolk are half Arab, half Egyptian, while Copts, Turks,
Jews, Italians, and Greeks are numerous; it is a centre of Mohammedan
learning, and since 1882 the centre of British influence in Egypt.


CAITHNESS (37), a level, except in the W. and S., bare, and somewhat
barren, county in the NE. of Scotland, 43 m. by 28 m., with a bold and
rocky coast; has flagstone quarries; fishing the chief industry, of which
Wick is the chief seat; the inhabitants are to a great extent of
Scandinavian origin, and English, not Gaelic, is the language spoken.


CAJETAN, CARDINAL, general of the Dominicans, born in Gaeta;
represented the Pope at the Diet of Augsburg, and tried in vain to
persuade Luther to recant; wrote a Commentary on the Bible, and on the
"Summa Theologiae" of Aquinas.


CALABAR`, a district under British protection on the coast of Upper
Guinea, the country flat and the climate unhealthy.


CALABAR BEAN, seed of an African bean, employed in medicine, known
as the Ordeal Bean, as, being poisonous, having been used to test the
innocence of people charged with witchcraft.


CALABRIA (1,500), a fertile prov. embraced in the SW. peninsula of
Italy, and traversed by the Apennines, with tunny and anchovy fisheries;
yields grains and fruits, and a variety of minerals; is inhabited by a
race of somewhat fiery temper; is much subject to earthquakes.


CALAIS (56), a fortified seaport in France, on the Strait of Dover,
where it is 21 m. across; was in possession of the English from 1347 to
1558, and the last town held by them on French soil; is the chief
landing-place for travellers from England to the Continent, and has
considerable export trade, as well as cotton and tulle manufactures.


CALAMY, EDMUND, a Presbyterian divine, born in London; favourable to
Royalty, but zealously opposed to Episcopacy, against which he
vigorously protested with his pen; opposed the execution of Charles I.
and the protectorate of Cromwell; made chaplain to Charles II. after the
Restoration; refused a bishopric, which he could not, on conscientious
grounds, accept (1600-1666).


CALAMY, EDMUND, a grandson of the preceding, an eminent
Nonconformist minister in London, on whom, for the high esteem in which
he was held, honorary degrees were conferred by the Edinburgh, Glasgow,
and Aberdeen universities (1671-1732).


CALAS, JEAN, a tradesman of Toulouse, whose son committed suicide,
and who was charged with murdering him to prevent his going over to the
Catholic Church; was tried, convicted, and sentenced to torture and death
on the wheel (1762); after which his property was confiscated, and his
children compelled to embrace the Catholic faith, while the widow escaped
into Switzerland. Voltaire, to his immortal honour, took up her case,
proved to the satisfaction of the legal authorities in France the
innocence of the victims, got the process revised, and Louis XV. to grant
a sum of money out of the royal bounty for the benefit of the family.


CALAVE`RAS, an inland county of California, E. of San Francisco,
rich in minerals, with copper and gold mines.


CALCHAS, the soothsayer who accompanied Agamemnon to the siege of
Troy; enjoined the sacrifice of Iphigenia to propitiate the gods,
foretold the length or the war, and advised the construction of the
wooden horses, a device by means of which Troy was surprised and taken.


CALCULUS, DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL, in mathematics, is the method
by which we discuss the properties of continuously varying quantities.
The nature of the method and the necessity for it may be indicated by a
simple example; e. g. the motion of a train in a track, or the motion
of a planet in its orbit. If we know the successive positions of the
moving body at successive short intervals of time, the rules of the
differential calculus enable us to calculate the speed, the change of
speed, the change of direction of motion (i. e. the curvature of the
path), and the effective force acting on the body. Conversely, given the
force at every point, and the initial position and velocity, the rules of
the integral calculus assist us in calculating the position and velocity
of the body at any future time. Expressed somewhat crudely, the
differential calculus has to do with the _differentials_ (increments or
decrements) of varying quantities; while the integral calculus is a
process of summation or _integration_ of these differentials.


CALCUTTA (900), on the left bank of the Hooghly, the largest and
westernmost branch of the Ganges delta, about 80 m. from the sea; is the
capital of Bengal and the Indian Empire, and the residence of the
Governor-General; the Government buildings, Bishop's College (now an
engineering school) High Court, town hall, bank, museum, university, St.
Paul's cathedral, and many other English Buildings have earned for it the
name "city of palaces"; but the native quarters, though being improved,
are still squalid, the houses of mud or bamboo; an esplanade, numerous
quays, an excellent water-supply, gas, and tramway services, add to the
amenities; there are extensive dockyards, warehouses, iron-works, timber
yards, and jute mills; extensive railway and steamboat communications
make it the chief emporium of commerce in Asia; ships of 5000 tons enter
the docks; founded in 1686, Calcutta was captured by Surajah Dowlah, and
the "Black Hole" massacre perpetrated in 1756; became the capital of
India in 1772, and has suffered frequently from cyclones; the population
are two-thirds Hindus, less than a third Mohammedan, and 41/2 per cent.
Christian.


CALDECOTT, RANDOLPH, artist, born in Chester; exercised his art
chiefly in book illustrations, which were full of life, and instinct with
a kindly, graceful humour; though professionally untrained, his abilities
as an artist were promptly and generously recognised by the Academy; he
suffered from ill-health, and died in Florida, whither he had gone to
recruit (1846-1886).


CALDER, SIR ROBERT, British naval officer; served bravely in several
naval engagements; was tried by court-martial, and reprimanded for not
following up a victory which he had gained, a sentence which was
afterwards found to be unjust; attained afterwards the rank of admiral
(1745-1818).


CALDERON DE LA BARCA, the great Spanish dramatist, born at Madrid;
entered the army, and served in Italy and Flanders, producing the while
dramas which were received with great enthusiasm; took holy orders, and
became a canon of Toledo, but to the last continued to write poems and
plays; he was a dramatist of the first order, and has been ranked by the
more competent critics among the foremost of the class in both ancient
and modern times (1600-1681).


CALDERWOOD, DAVID, a Scotch ecclesiastic, born at Dalkeith; became
minister of Crailing; first imprisoned, and then banished for resisting
the attempts of James VI. to establish Episcopacy in Scotland; wrote a
book, "Altare Damascenum," in Holland, whither he had retired, being a
searching criticism of the claims of the Episcopacy; returned on the
death of the king, and wrote a "History of the Kirk" (1575-1650).


CALEDONIA, the Roman name for Scotland N. of the Wall of Antoninus,
since applied poetically to the whole of Scotland.


CALEDONIAN CANAL, a canal across the NW. of Scotland, executed by
Telford, for the passage of ships between the Atlantic and the North Sea,
60 m. long, 40 m. of which consist of natural lakes; begun 1803, finished
1823; cost L1,300,000; has 28 locks; was constructed for the benefit of
coasting vessels to save the risks they encountered in the Pentland
Firth.


CALENDS, the first day of the Roman month, so called as the day on
which the feast days and unlucky days of the month were announced.


CAL`GARY, the capital of Alberta, in NW. territory of Canada.


CALHOUN, JOHN CALDWELL, an American statesman, born in S. Carolina,
of Irish descent; all through his public life in high civic position;
leader of "the States rights" movement, in vindication of the doctrine
that the Union was a mere compact, and any State had a right to withdraw
from its conditions; and champion of the slave-holding States, regarding
slavery as an institution fraught with blessing to all concerned. His
chief work is a treatise on the "Nature of Government" (1789-1850).


CALIBAN, a slave in Shakespeare's "Tempest," of the grossest
animality of nature.


CALICUT (66), chief town on the Malabar coast, in the Madras
Presidency of India, the first port at which Vasco da Gama landed in
1498, whence the cotton cloth first imported from the place got the name
"calico."


CALIFORNIA (1,208), the most south-westerly State in the American
Union; occupies the Pacific seaboard between Oregon and Mexico, and is
bounded landward by Nevada and Arizona. It is the second largest State,
larger by a quarter than the United Kingdom. In the N. the rainfall is
excessive, and winters severe; in the S. there is little rain, and a
delightful climate. Wheat is the most important product; the grape and
all manner of fruits grow luxuriantly. Mineral wealth is great: it is the
foremost State for gold and quicksilver; lead, silver, copper, iron,
sulphur, coal, and many other minerals abound. The industries include
brandy and sugar manufactures, silk-growing, shipbuilding, and fishing.
All products are exported, eastward by the great Central, Union, and
Southern Pacific railroads; and seaward, the chief port being San
Francisco, the largest city, as Sacramento is the capital of the State.
The Yosemite Valley, in the Sierra Nevada, through which falls the Merced
River, is the most wonderful gorge in the world. Captured from Mexico in
1847, the discovery of gold next year raised great excitement, and
brought thousands of adventurers from all over the world. Constituted a
State in 1850, the original lawlessness gradually gave way to regular
administration, and progress has since been steady and rapid.


CALIFORNIA, LOWER (30), an extensive, mountainous, dry, and scarcely
habitable peninsula, stretching southward from the State, in Mexican
territory; agriculture is carried on in some of the valleys, and pearl
and whale fisheries support some coast towns.


CALIGULA, Roman emperor from A.D. 37 to 41, youngest son of
Germanicus and Agrippina, born at Antium; having ingratiated himself with
Tiberius, was named his successor; ruled with wisdom and magnanimity at
first, while he lived in the unbridled indulgence of every lust, but
after an illness due to his dissipation, gave way to the most atrocious
acts of cruelty and impiety; would entertain people at a banquet and then
throw them into the sea; wished Rome had only one head, that he might
shear it off at a blow; had his horse installed as consul in mockery of
the office; declared himself a god, and had divine honours paid to him,
till a conspiracy was formed against him on his return from an expedition
into Gaul, when he was assassinated (12-41).


CALIPH, the title adopted by the successors of Mahomet, as supreme
in both civil and religious matters. The principal caliphates are: (1)
the Caliphate of the East, established by Abubekr at Mecca, transferred
to Bagdad by the Abassides (632-1258); (2) the Caliphate of Cordova,
established at Cordova by Abderrahman (756-1031); (3) the Caliphate of
Egypt, established by the Fatimites (909-1171). It was at Bagdad that
Moslem civilisation achieved its final development.


CALISTO, daughter of Lycaon, king of Arcadia; changed by Juno into a
she-bear, and placed by Jupiter among the stars.


CALIXTUS, the name of three popes: C. I., Pope from 218 to 222;
C. II., pope from 1119 to 1124; C. III., Pope from 1455 to
1458.


CALIXTUS, GEORGE, a Lutheran theologian of an eminently tolerant
type, born at Sleswick; travelled for four years in Germany, Belgium,
England, and France; accused of heresy, or rather apostasy, for the
liberal spirit in which he had learned in consequence to treat both
Catholics and Calvinists, and for considering the Apostles' Creed a broad
enough basis for Christian union and communion, which might embrace both;
his friends, however, stood by him, and he retained the position he held
in the Lutheran Church (1586-1656).


CALLA`O (32), a port in Peru, 7 m. from Lima, with a fine harbour
the safest on the coast, if not in the world; its prosperity depends on
trade, which is less than it was before the annexation of the nitrate
fields to Chile.


CALLCOTT, JOHN WALL, an eminent musical composer, born at
Kensington; was a pupil of Haendel's, and is celebrated for his glee
compositions (1766-1821). SIR AUGUSTUS WALL, landscape painter,
brother; was knighted for his eminent skill as an artist (1779-1841).
LADY MARIA, wife of Sir Augustus, author of "Little Arthur's History
of England" (1779-1842).


CALLERNISH, a district in the W. of the island of Lewis, 10 m. from
Stornoway; noted for its circles of standing stones, from 10 to 17 ft. in
height, the whole in cruciform arrangement.


CALLIC`RATES, along with Ictinos, architect of the Parthenon in
Athens.


CALLIM`ACHUS, Greek architect, inventor of the Corinthian order, 4th
century B.C.


CALLIMACHUS, Greek poet, born in Cyrena; taught grammar and
belles-lettres at Alexandria; was keeper of the library there; of his
writings, which are said to have been on a variety of subjects and very
numerous, only a few epigrams and hymns remain; was admired by Catullus,
Ovid, and Propertius, and flourished in the 3rd century B.C.


CALLI`OPE, the muse of epic poetry and eloquence, is represented
with a tablet and stylus, and sometimes with a paper roll. See
MUSES.


CALLIS`THENES, a disciple of Aristotle, who accompanied Alexander
the Great to India, and was put to death by his order for remonstrating
with him on his adoption of the manners and style of the potentates of
the East, but professedly on a charge of treason.


CALLIS`TRATUS, an Athenian orator, who kindled in Demosthenes a
passion for his art; his Spartan sympathies brought him to grief, and led
to his execution as a traitor.


CALLOT, JACQUES, engraver and etcher, born at Nancy; his etchings,
executed many of them at the instance of the Grand-duke of Tuscany and
Louis XIII. of France, amounted to 1600 pieces, such as those of the
sieges of Breda and Rochelle, which are much admired, as also those of
the gipsies with whom he associated in his youth (1593-1633).


CALMET, AUGUSTINE, a learned Benedictine and biblical scholar, born
in Lorraine, but known in England by his "Historical, Critical, and
Chronological Dictionary of the Bible," the first published book of its
kind of any note, and much referred to at one time as an authority; he
wrote also a "Commentary on the Bible" in 23 vols., and a "Universal
History" in 17 vols. (1672-1757).


CALMS, THE, tracts of calm in the ocean, on the confines of the
trade winds, and which lasts for weeks at a time.


CALOMAR`DE, DUKE, a Spanish statesman; minister of Ferdinand VII.; a
violent enemy of liberal principles and measures, and a reactionary;
obnoxious to the people; arrested for treachery, escaped into France by
bribing his captors (1773-1842).


CALONNE, CHARLES ALEXANDRE DE, French financier under Louis XVI.,
born at Douay; a man of "fiscal genius; genius for persuading, before all
things for borrowing"; succeeded Necker in 1783 as comptroller-general of
the finances in France; after four years of desperate attempts at
financial adjustment, could do nothing but convoke the Notables in 1787;
could give no account of his administration that would satisfy them; was
dismissed, and had to quit Paris and France; "his task to raise the wind
and the winds," says Carlyle, "and he did it," referring to the
Revolution he provoked; was permitted by Napoleon to return to France,
where he died in embarrassed circumstances (1734-1802).


CALORIC, the name given by physicists to the presumed subtle element
which causes heat.


CALORIUS, ABRAHAM, a fiery Lutheran polemic, a bitter enemy of
George Calixtus (1612-1686).


CALOTYPE, a process of photography invented by Fox Talbot in 1840,
by means of the action of light on nitrate of silver.


CALPE, Gibraltar, one of the PILLARS OF HERCULES (q. v.).


CALPURNIA, the last wife of Julius Caesar, daughter of the consul
Piso, who, alive to the danger of conspiracy, urged Caesar to stay at home
the day he was assassinated.


CALTAGIRONE (28), a city 38 m. SW. of Catania; the staple industry
is pottery and terra-cotta ware.


CAL`UMET, among the American Indians a pipe for smoking, which if
accepted when offered, was an emblem of peace, and if rejected, a
declaration of war.


CALVADOS (428), a maritime dep. in N. of France, skirted by
dangerous rocks of the same name, with a fertile soil and a moist
climate.


CALVAERT, DENIS, a painter, born at Antwerp; settled at Bologna,
where he founded a school, from whence issued many eminent artists, among
others Guidi Reni, Domenichino, and Albani; his masterpiece, "St.
Michael" in St. Peter's, Bologna (1555-1619).


CALVARY, the place of the crucifixion, identified with a hill on the
N. of Jerusalem, looked down upon from the city, with a cliff on which
criminals were cast down prior to being stoned; also name given to
effigies of the crucifixion in Catholic countries, erected for devotion.


CALVERLEY, CHARLES STUART, a clever English parodist, Fellow of
Christ's Church, Oxford; wrote "Fly-Leaves" and "Verses and
Translations"; his parodies among the most amusing of the century,
flavoured by the author's scholarship (1831-1884).


CALVERT, GEORGE and CECIL, father and son, Lords Baltimore;
founders, under charter from James I., of Maryland, U.S.


CALVIN, JOHN, or CAUVIN, the great Reformer, born at Noyon, in
Picardy; devoted for a time to the law, was sent to study at the
university of Orleans, after having mastered Latin as a boy at Paris;
became acquainted with the Scriptures, and acquired a permanently
theological bent; professed the Protestant faith; proceeded to Paris;
became the centre of a dangerous religious excitement; had to flee for
his life from France; retired to Basel, where he studied Hebrew and wrote
his great epoch-making book, the "Institutes of the Christian Religion";
making after this for Strassburg, he chanced to pass through Geneva, was
arrested as by the hand of God to stay and help on God's work in the
place, but proceeded with such rigour that he was expelled, though
recalled after three years; on his return he proposed and established his
system of Church government, which allowed of no license in faith any
more than conduct, as witness the burning of Servetus for denying the
doctrine of the Trinity; for twenty years he held sway in Geneva, and for
so long he was regarded as the head of the Reformed Churches in Scotland,
Switzerland, Holland, and France. Besides his "Institutes," he found time
to write Commentaries on nearly all the books of the Bible; was a man of
masculine intellect and single-hearted devotion to duty, as ever in the
"Great Taskmaster's" eye. His greatest work was his "Institutes,"
published in Basel in 1535-36. It was written in Latin, and four years
after translated by himself into French. "In the translated form," says
Prof. Saintsbury, "it is beyond all question the first serious work of
great literary merit not historical in the history of French prose....
Considering that the whole of it was written before the author of it was
seven-and-twenty, it is perhaps the most remarkable work of its
particular kind to be anywhere found; the merits of it being those of
full maturity and elaborate preparation rather than of youthful
exuberance" (1509-1564).


CALVINISM, the theological system of Calvin, the chief
characteristic of which is that it assigns all in salvation to the
sovereign action and persistent operation of Divine grace.


CALVO, CHARLES, an Argentine publicist, born at Buenos Ayres in
1824; author of "International Law, Theoretical and Practical."


CALYPSO, in the Greek mythology a nymph, daughter of Atlas, queen of
the island of Ogygia, who by her fascinating charms detained Ulysses
beside her for 7 of the 10 years of his wanderings home from Troy; she
died of grief on his departure.


CAMARILLA, a name of recent origin in Spain for a clique of private
counsellors at court, who interpose between the legitimate ministers and
the crown.


CAMBACERES, JEAN JACQUES REGIS DE, Duke of Parma, born at
Montpellier; bred to the legal profession, took a prominent part as a
lawyer in the national Convention; after the Revolution of the 18th
Brumaire, was chosen second consul; was sincerely attached to Napoleon;
was made by him High Chancellor of the Empire as well as Duke of Parma;
his "Projet de Code" formed the basis of the _Code Napoleon_ (1753-1824).


CAMBAY (31), a town and seaport N. of Bombay, on a gulf of the same
name, which is fast silting up, in consequence of which the place, once a
flourishing port, has fallen into decay.


CAMBO`DIA (1,500), a small kingdom in Indo-China, occupying an area
as large as Scotland in the plains of the Lower Mekong. The coast-line is
washed by the Gulf of Siam; the landward boundaries touch Siam, Annam,
and French Cochin-China; in the N. are stretches of forest and hills in
which iron and copper are wrought; a branch of the Mekong flows backward
and forms the Great Lake; most of the country is inundated in the rainy
season, and rice, tobacco, cotton, and maize are grown in the tracts thus
irrigated; spices, gutta-percha, and timber are also produced; there are
iron-works at Kompong Soai; foreign trade is done through the port
Kampot. The capital is Pnom-Penh (35), on the Mekong. The kingdom was
formerly much more extensive; remarkable ruins of ancient grandeur are
numerous; it has been under French protection since 1863.


CAMBRAI (17), a city in the dep. of Nord, in France, on the Scheldt;
famous for its fine linen fabrics, hence called _cambrics_. Fenelon was
archbishop here, in the cathedral of which is a monument to his memory.


CAMBRIA, the ancient name of Wales, country of the Kymry, a Celtic
race, to which the Welsh belong.


CAMBRIDGE (44), county town of Cambridgeshire, stands in flat
country, on the Cam, 28 m. NE. of London; an ancient city, with
interesting archaeological remains; there are some fine buildings, the
oldest round church in England, Holy Sepulchre, and a Roman Catholic
church. The glory of the city is the University, founded in the 12th
century, with its colleges housed in stately buildings, chapels,
libraries, museums, &c., which shares with Oxford the academic prestige
of England. It lays emphasis on mathematical, as Oxford on classical,
culture. Among its eminent men have been Bacon, Newton, Cromwell, Pitt,
Thackeray, Spenser, Milton, Dryden, Wordsworth, and Tennyson.


CAMBRIDGE (70), a suburb of Boston, U.S., one of the oldest towns
in New England; seat of Harvard University; the centre of the book-making
trade; here Longfellow resided for many years.


CAMBRIDGE, FIRST DUKE OF, seventh and youngest son of George III.;
served as volunteer under the Duke of York, and carried a marshal's
baton; was made viceroy of Hanover, which he continued to be till, in
1837, the crown fell to the Duke of Cumberland (1774-1850).


CAMBRIDGE, SECOND DUKE OF, son of the preceding and cousin to the
Queen, born in Hanover; served in the army; became commander-in-chief in
1856 on the resignation of Viscount Hardinge; retired in 1895, and was
succeeded by Lord Wolseley; _b_. 1819.


CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY contains 17 colleges: Peterhouse, founded 1257;
Clare College, 1326; Pembroke, 1347; Gonville and Caius, 1348; Trinity
Hall, 1350; Corpus Christi, 1352; King's, 1441; Queens', 1448; St.
Catherine's, 1473; Jesus, 1496; Christ's, 1505; St John's, 1511;
Magdalene, 1519; Trinity, 1546; Emmanuel, 1584; Sidney Sussex, 1598; and
Downing, 1800. Each college is a corporation by itself, governed by
statutes sanctioned by the crown, and capable of holding landed or other
property.


CAMBRIDGESHIRE (188), an inland agricultural county, nine-tenths of
its surface under cultivation; famed for its butter and cheese; very
flat, marshy in the N., with a range of chalk-hills, the Gog-Magog in the
S.; is rich in Roman remains.


CAMBRONNE, French general, born at Nantes; served under the Republic
and the Empire; accompanied Napoleon to Elba in 1814; commanded a
division of the Old Guard at Waterloo; fought to the last; though
surrounded by the enemy and summoned to surrender, refused, and was taken
prisoner; is credited with the saying, _La Garde meurt, et ne se rend
pas_, "The Guard dies, but does not surrender" (1770-1842).


CAMBUS`CAN, king of Tartary, identified with Genghis Khan, who had a
wonderful steed of brass, magically obedient to the wish of the rider,
together with a magical mirror, sword, and ring.


CAMBY`SES, king of Persia, succeeded his father, the great Cyrus;
invaded and subdued Egypt, but afterwards suffered serious reverses, and
in the end gave himself up to dissipation and vindictive acts of cruelty,
from which not only his subjects suffered, but the members of his own
family; _d_. 54 B.C.


CAMBYSES, KING, a ranting character in a play called "The Lamentable
Tragedy"; referred to by Falstaff in I Henry IV., Act ii. sc. 4.


CAMDEN (58), a busy town in New Jersey, U.S., on the left bank of
the Delaware, opposite Philadelphia; the terminus of six railways.


CAMDEN, CHARLES PRATT, FIRST EARL OF, a distinguished British lawyer
and statesman, chief-justice of the King's Bench in George I.'s reign,
and ultimately Lord Chancellor of England; opposed, as judge in the case,
the prosecution of Wilkes as illegal, and as a statesman the policy and
action of the government towards the American colonies; he was created
earl in 1786 (1713-1794).


CAMDEN, WILLIAM, a learned English antiquary, the first and most
famous born in London; second master, and eventually head-master in
Westminster School, during which time he gave proof of his antiquarian
knowledge, which led to his appointment as Clarencieux king-at-arms;
author of "Britannia," a historical and topographical account of the
British Isles, his most widely known work, and "Annals of Elizabeth's
Reign," both, as all the rest of his works, written in Latin; he has been
surnamed the Strabo and the Pausanias of England (1551-1623).


CAMELOT, a place in Somerset, where, it is presumed, King Arthur
held his court, and where entrenchments of an old town are still to be
seen.


CAMENAE, in the Roman mythology a set of nymphs endowed with
semi-prophetic powers, and sometimes identified with the Muses.


CAMEO, a precious stone cut in relief; consists generally of two or
three different colours, the upper cut in relief and the under forming
the ground.


CAMERA LUCIDA, an optical instrument or contrivance, by means of
which the image of an object may be made to appear on a light or white
surface.


CAMERA OBSCURA, an optical contrivance, by means of which the images
of external objects are exhibited distinctly on a surface in the focus of
the lens.


CAMERARIUS, a distinguished scholar, born at Bamberg; active as a
German Reformer; played a prominent part in the religious struggles of
his time; friend and biographer of Melanchthon; collaborated with him in
drawing up the Augsburg Confession (1500-1574).


CAMERON, JOHN, a learned divine, born in Glasgow, who held several
professorial appointments on the Continent; was for a time Principal of
Glasgow University; his knowledge was so extensive that he was styled a
"walking library," but he fell in disfavour with the people for his
doctrine of passive obedience, and he died of a wound inflicted by an
opponent of his views (1579-1625).


CAMERON, RICHARD, a Scotch Covenanter of the 17th century, born in
Falkland, Fife; a ringleader of the persecuted Presbyterians, took to
arms along with sixty others in defence of his rights; was surprised by a
body of dragoons at AIRDS MOSS (q. v.), and after a brave fight
slain, his head and hands cut off, and fixed on the Netherbow Port, at
the head of the Canongate, Edinburgh, in 1680.


CAMERON, VERNEY LOVETT, African explorer, born near Weymouth;
traversed Africa all the way from east to west (1873-75); he was on the
track of important discoveries, but his explorations were cut short by
the natives; wrote "Across Africa" (1844-1894).


CAMERONIANS (1), a Presbyterian body in Scotland who derived their
name from Richard Cameron, contended like him for the faith to which the
nation by covenant had bound itself, and even declined to take the oath
of allegiance to sovereigns such as William III. and his successors, who
did not explicitly concede to the nation this right. (2) Also a British
regiment, originally raised in defence of Scottish religious rights; for
long the 26th Regiment of the British line, now the Scottish Rifles.


CAMEROON, (1) a river in W. Africa, falling by a wide estuary into
the Bight of Biafra, known as the oil river, from the quantities of
palm-oil exported; (2) a mountain range, a volcanic group, the highest
peak nearly 14,000 ft., NW. of the estuary; (3) also a German colony,
extending 199 m. along the coast.


CAMILLA, (1) a virgin queen of the Volsci, one of the heroines in
the "AEneid," noted for her preternatural fleetness on the racecourse,
and her grace; (2) also a sister of the HORATII (q. v.), killed
by her brother because she wept at the death of her affiance, one of the
CURIATII (q. v.), whom the Horatii slew.


CAMILLUS, MARCUS FURIUS, a famous patrician of early Rome; took
Veii, a rival town, after a ten years' siege; retired into voluntary
exile at Ardea on account of the envy of his enemies in Rome; recalled
from exile, saved Rome from destruction by the Gauls under Brennus, was
five times elected dictator, and gained a succession of victories over
rival Italian tribes; died at eighty of the plague, in 365 B.C.,
lamented by the whole nation, and remembered for generations after as one
of the noblest heroic figures in Roman history.


CAMISARDS, Huguenots of the Cevennes, who took up arms by thousands
in serious revolt against Louis XIV., in which others joined, under Jean
Cavalier their chief, after, and in consequence of, the revocation of the
Edict of Nantes (1685); so called because they wore a _camiso_ (Fr. a
_chemise_), a blouse over their armour; were partly persuaded and partly
compelled into submission by Marshal Villars in 1704.


CAMOENS, the poet of Portugal, born at Lisbon, studied at Coimbra;
fell in passionate love with a lady of high rank in Lisbon, as she with
him, but whom he was not allowed to marry; left Lisbon, joined the army,
and fought against the Moors; volunteered service in India, arrived at
Goa, and got into trouble with the Portuguese authorities; was banished
to Macao, and consoled himself by writing his "Lusiad"; coming home he
lost everything but his poem; died neglected and in poverty; the title of
the poem is properly "The Lusiads," or the Lusitanians, i. e. the
Portuguese, and is their national epic, called, not inaptly, the "Epos of
Commerce"; it has been translated into most European languages, and into
English alone no fewer than six times (1524-1580).


CAMORRA, a secret society in Naples with wide ramifications, which
at one time had by sheer terrorism considerable political influence in
the country; when steps were taken by Francis II. to suppress it, the
members of it joined the revolutionary party, and had their revenge in
the expulsion eventually of the Bourbons from Italy.


CAMPAGNA, (1) an unhealthy flat district round Rome, co-extensive
with ancient Latium, infested with malaria; (2) a town in Italy, in
Salerno, with a cathedral, and a trade in wine, oil, and fruit.


CAMPAIGN, THE, poem by Addison in celebration of Marlborough's
victory at Blenheim.


CAMPAN, MME. DE, born at Paris, faithful friend and confidante of
Marie Antoinette; after the Revolution opened a boarding-school at St.
Germain; became under Napoleon matron of an institution for daughters of
officers of the Legion of Honour; wrote the "Private Life of Marie
Antoinette" (1752-1822).


CAMPANELLA, TOMMASO, an Italian philosopher of the transition
period, originally a Dominican monk, born in Calabria; contemporary of
Bacon; aimed, like him, at the reform of philosophy; opposed
scholasticism, fell back upon the ancient systems, and devoted himself to
the study of nature; was persecuted all along by the Church, and spent 27
years of his life in a Neapolitan dungeon; released, he retired to
France, and enjoyed the protection of Richelieu; he was the author of
sonnets as well as philosophical works (1568-1639).


CAMPANIA, an ancient prov. in the W. of Italy, of great fertility,
and yields corn, wine, and oil in great abundance; Capua was the capital,
the chief towns of which now are Naples, Salerno, and Gaeta; it was a
favourite resort of the wealthy families of ancient Rome.


CAMPANILE, a tower for bells constructed beside a church, but not
attached to it; very common in Italian cities, the leaning tower of Pisa
being one, and that of Florence one of the most famous.


CAMPBELL, a celebrated Scottish Highland clan, the members of which
have played an important role in English and Scottish history.


CAMPBELL, ALEXANDER, an Anti-Calvinistic Baptist, born in Antrim;
emigrated to America in 1807, and founded a sect called the "Disciples of
Christ"; disowned creeds, and owned no authority in religion but the
Bible; the sect has upwards of 5000 meeting-houses in America, and over
half a million members. Campbell executed a translation of the New
Testament, in which he employed the words "immercer" and "immersion" for
"baptist" and "baptism" (1788-1866).


CAMPBELL, SIR COLIN, LORD CLYDE, born in Glasgow, son of a carpenter
named Macliver; entered the army, and rose rapidly; served in China and
the Punjab; commanded the Highland Brigade in the Crimea; won the day at
Alma and Balaclava; commanded in India during the Mutiny; relieved
Lucknow, and quelled the rebellion; was made field-marshal, with a
pension of L2000, and created Lord Clyde; he was one of the bravest
soldiers of England (1792-1863).


CAMPBELL, GEORGE, a Scotch divine, Principal of Aberdeen University;
wrote "Philosophy of Rhetoric," and an able reply to Hume's argument
against miracles, entitled "Dissertation on Miracles" (1709-1796).


CAMPBELL, JOHN, Lord Chancellor of England, born at Cupar-Fife; a
son of the manse; destined for the Church, but took the study of law; was
called to the bar; did journalistic work and law reports; was a Whig in
politics; held a succession of offices both on the Bench and in the
Cabinet; wrote the "Lives of the Chancellors" and the "Lives of the Chief
Justices" (1779-1861).


CAMPBELL, JOHN FRANCIS, born at Islay, author of, among other works,
"Popular Tales of the West Highlands, orally collected," a collection all
his own, and a remarkable one for the enthusiasm and the patriotic
devotion it displays (1822-1885).


CAMPBELL, JOHN MACLEOD, a Scotch clergyman, born in Argyll; deposed
from the ministry of the Scotch Church in 1831 for his liberal
theological sentiments; a saintly man, whose character alone should have
protected him from such an indignity; his favourite theme was the
self-evidencing character of revelation, while the doctrine for which he
was deposed, the Fatherhood of God, is being now adopted as the central
principle of Scotch theology; he continued afterwards to ply his vocation
as a minister of Christ in a quiet way to some quiet people like himself,
and before his death a testimonial and address in recognition of his
worth was presented to him by representatives of nearly every religious
community in Scotland (1801-1872).


CAMPBELL, THOMAS, poet, born in Glasgow; studied with distinction at
the University; when a student of law in Edinburgh wrote "The Pleasures
of Hope"; the success of the work, which was great, enabled him to travel
on the Continent, where he wrote the well-known lines, "Ye Mariners of
England," "Hohenlinden," and "The Exile of Erin"; married, and settled in
London, where he did writing, lecturing, and some more poetry, in
particular "The Last Man"; after settling in London a pension of L200 was
awarded him through the influence of Fox; he wrote in prose as well as
verse; he was elected Rector of Glasgow University in 1827, and again in
the following year: buried in Westminster (1777-1844).


CAMPBELTOWN, a town in Kintyre, Argyllshire, with a fine harbour; is
a great fishing centre; and has over 20 whisky distilleries.


CAMPE, JOACHIM HEINRICH, German educationist; disciple of Basedow,
and author of educational works (1746-1818).


CAMPEACHY (12), a Mexican seaport on a bay of the same name;
manufactures cigars.


CAMPEGGIO, LORENZO, cardinal; twice visited England as legate, the
last time in connection with the divorce between Henry VIII. and
Catherine, with the effect of mortally offending the former and being of
no real benefit to the latter, whom he would fain have befriended; his
mission served only to embitter the relations of Henry with the see of
Rome (1474-1539).


CAMPER, PETER, a Dutch anatomist, born at Leyden; held sundry
professorships; made a special study of the facial angle in connection
with intelligence; he was an artist as well as a scientist, and a patron
of art (1722-1789).


CAMPERDOWN, a tract of sandy hills on the coast of N. Holland, near
which Admiral Duncan defeated the Dutch fleet under Van Winter in 1797.


CAMPHUYSEN, a Dutch landscape painter of the 17th century, famous
for his moonlight pieces.


CAMPI, a family of painters, distinguished in the annals of Italian
art at Cremona in the 16th century.


CAMPINE, a vast moor of swamp and peat to the E. of Antwerp, being
now rendered fertile by irrigation.


CAMPION, EDMUND, a Jesuit, born in London; a renegade from the
Church of England; became a keen Catholic propagandist in England; was
arrested for sedition, of which he was innocent, and executed; was in
1886 beatified by Pope Leo XIII. (1540-1581).


CAMPO-FORMIO, a village near Udine, in Venetia, where a treaty was
concluded between France and Austria in 1797, by which the Belgian
provinces and part of Lombardy were ceded to France, and certain Venetian
States to Austria in return.


CAMPO SANTO (_Holy Ground_), Italian and Spanish name for a
burial-place.


CAMPOS (13), a trading city of Brazil, in the prov. of Rio Janeiro.


CAMPVERE, now called VERE, on the NE. of the island of
Walcheren; had a Scotch factory under Scotch law, civil and
ecclesiastical.


CAMUS, bishop of Belley, born at Paris; a violent enemy of the
mendicant monks (1582-1663).


CAMUS, a learned French jurisconsult, member of the National
Convention; a determined enemy of the Court party in France; voted for
the execution of the king as a traitor and conspirator; was conservator
of the national records, and did good service in preserving them
(1740-1804).


CANAAN, originally the coast land, but eventually the whole, of
Palestine W. of the Jordan.


CANAANITES, a civilised race with towns for defence; dependent on
agriculture; worshippers of the fertilising powers of nature; and the
original inhabitants of Palestine, from which they were never wholly
rooted out.


CANADA (5,000), which with Newfoundland forms British North America,
occupies the northern third of the continent, stretches from the Atlantic
to the Pacific, from the United States to Alaska and the Arctic Ocean;
nearly as large as Europe, it comprises a lofty and a lower tableland W.
and E. of the Rocky Mountains, the peninsulas of Labrador and Nova
Scotia, and between these a vast extent of prairie and undulating land,
with rivers and lakes innumerable, many of them of enormous size and
navigable, constituting the finest system of inland waterways in the
world; the Rocky Mountains rise to 16,000 ft., but there are several
gorges, through one of which the Canadian Pacific railroad runs; the
chief rivers are the Fraser, Mackenzie, Saskatchewan, and St. Lawrence;
Great Slave, Great Bear, Athabasca, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Superior, Huron,
Erie, and Ontario are the largest lakes; the climate is varied, very cold
in the north, very wet west of the Rockies, elsewhere drier than in
Europe, with hot summers, long, cold, but bracing and exhilarating
winters; the corn-growing land is practically inexhaustible; the finest
wheat is grown without manure, year after year, in the rich soil of
Manitoba, Athabasca, and the western prairie; the forests yield maple,
oak, elm, pine, ash, and poplar in immense quantities, and steps are
taken to prevent the wealth of timber ever being exhausted; gold, coal,
iron, and copper are widely distributed, but as yet not much wrought;
fisheries, both on the coasts and inland, are of great value; agriculture
and forestry are the most important industries; the chief trade is done
with England and the United States; the twelve provinces, Quebec,
Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, British
Columbia, Manitoba, Keewatin, Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and
Athabasca, each with its own Parliament, are united under the Dominion
Government; the Governor-General is the Viceroy of the Queen; the
Dominion Parliament meets at Ottawa, the federal capital; nearly every
province has its university, that of Toronto being the most important;
the largest town is Montreal; Toronto, Quebec, Hamilton, and Halifax are
all larger than the capital; taken possession of by France in 1534,
settlement began at Quebec in 1608; by the treaty of Utrecht, 1703,
Hudson Bay, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland passed to England; the rest of
French territory was ceded to England in 1763; constituted at different
times, the various provinces, except Newfoundland, were finally
confederated in 1871.


CANALETTO, ANTONIO, a Venetian painter, famous for his pictures of
Venice and handling of light and shade (1697-1768).


CANALETTO, BERNARDO BELLOTTO, nephew and pupil of preceding;
distinguished for his perspective and light and shade (1720-1780).


CANARIS, CONSTANTINE, a Greek statesman, did much to free and
consolidate Greece, more than any other statesman (1790-1877).


CANARY ISLANDS (288), a group of mountainous islands in the
Atlantic, off the NW. African coast, belonging to Spain, with rocky
coasts, and wild, picturesque scenery; on the lower levels the climate is
delightful, and sugar, bananas, and dates grow; farther up there are
zones where wheat and cereals are cultivated; the rainfall is low, and
water often scarce; sugar, wine, and tobacco are exported; the islands
are a health resort of growing favour.


CANCAN, the name of an ungraceful and indecent dance practised in
the Paris dancing saloons.


CANDIA (12), the ancient name of Crete, now the name of the capital,
in the centre of the N. coast.


CANDIDE, a philosophic romance by Voltaire, and written in ridicule
of the famous maxim of Leibnitz, "All for the best in the best of all
possible worlds"; it is a sweeping satire, and "religion, political
government, national manners, human weakness, ambition, love, loyalty,
all come in for a sneer."


CANDLEMAS, a festival in commemoration of the purification of the
Virgin, held on February 2, celebrated with lighted candles; an old Roman
custom in honour of the goddess Februa.


CANDLISH, ROBERT SMITH, a Scottish ecclesiastic, born in Edinburgh;
distinguished, next to Chalmers, for his services in organising the Free
Church of Scotland; was an able debater and an eloquent preacher
(1806-1873).


CANDOLLE. See DE CANDOLLE.


CANDOUR, MRS., a slanderess in Sheridan's "Rivals."


CANEA (12), chief commercial town in Crete, on NW. coast; trades in
wax, oil, fruit, wool, and silk.


CANINA, LUIGI, Italian architect; wrote on the antiquities of Rome,
Etruria, &c. (1795-1856).


CANNAE, ancient town in Apulia, near the mouth of the Aufidus, where
Hannibal, in a great battle, defeated the Romans in 216 B.C., but
failing to follow up his success by a march on Rome, was twitted by
Maherbal, one of his officers, who addressing him said, "You know how to
conquer, Hannibal, but not how to profit by your victory."


CANNES (15), a French watering-place and health resort on the
Mediterranean, in the SE. of France, where Napoleon landed on his return
from Elba.


CANNING, CHARLES JOHN, EARL, grandson of the succeeding; after
service in cabinet offices, was made Governor-General of India, 1856, in
succession to Lord Dalhousie; held this post at the time of the Mutiny in
1857; distinguished himself during this trying crisis by his discretion,
firmness, and moderation; became viceroy on the transfer of the
government to the crown in 1858; died in London without issue, and the
title became extinct (1812-1862).


CANNING, GEORGE, a distinguished British statesman and orator, born
in London; studied for the bar; entered Parliament as a protege of Pitt,
whom he strenuously supported; was rewarded by an under-secretaryship;
married a lady of high rank, with a fortune; satirised the Whigs by his
pen in his "Anti-Jacobin"; on the death of Pitt became minister of
Foreign Affairs; under Portland distinguished himself by defeating the
schemes of Napoleon; became a member of the Liverpool ministry, and once
more minister of Foreign Affairs; on the death of Liverpool was made
Prime Minister, and after a period of unpopularity became popular by
adopting, to the disgust of his old colleagues, a liberal policy; was not
equal to the opposition he provoked, and died at the age of 57
(1770-1827).


CANO, ALONZO, a celebrated artist, born at Granada; surnamed the
Michael Angelo of Spain, having been painter, sculptor, and architect
(1601-1667).


CANO, SEBASTIAN DEL, a Spanish navigator, the first to sail round
the world; perished on his second voyage to India (1460-1526).


CANON, the name given to the body of Scripture accepted by the
Church as of divine authority.


CANON OF COLORADO, a gorge in Arizona through which the Colorado
River flows, the largest and deepest in the world, being 300 m. long,
with a wall from 3000 to 6000 ft. in perpendicular height.


CANONISATION, in the Romish Church, is the solemn declaration by the
Pope that a servant of God, renowned for his virtue and for miracles he
has wrought, is to be publicly venerated by the whole Church, termed
Saint, and honoured by a special festival. A preparatory stage is
beatification, and the beatification and canonisation of a saint are
promoted by a long, tedious, and costly process, much resembling a suit
at law.


CANOPUS, the blue vault of heaven with its stars, revered and
worshipped by the son of the sandy desert as a friend and guide to him,
as he wanders over the waste at night alone.


CANOSA (18), a town in Apulia, abounding in Roman remains, on the
site of ancient Canusium.


CANOSSA, a town NW. of Bologna, in the courtyard of the castle of
which the Emperor Henry IV. stood three days in the cold, in January
1077, bareheaded and barefooted, waiting for Pope Gregory VII. to remove
from him the sentence of excommunication.


CANOVA, ANTONIO, a great Italian sculptor, born in Venetia; gave
early proof of his genius; his first great work, and which established
his fame, was the group of "Theseus and the Minotaur," which was
by-and-by succeeded by his "Cupid and Psyche," distinguished by a
tenderness and grace quite peculiar to him, and erelong by "Perseus with
the Head of Medusa," perhaps the triumph of his art; his works were
numerous, and brought him a large fortune, which he made a generous use
of (1757-1822).


CANROBERT, FRANCOIS, marshal of France; served for some 20 years in
Algeria; was a supporter of Napoleon III., and a tool; commanded in the
Crimea, first under, and then in succession to St. Arnaud; fought in
Italy against Austria; was shut up in Metz with Bazaine, and made
prisoner; became a member of the senate under the Republic (1809-1895).


CANT, affectation of thinking, believing, and feeling what one in
his heart and reality does not, of which there are two degrees, insincere
and sincere; insincere when one cants knowing it, and sincere when one
cants without knowing it, the latter being of the darker and deeper dye.


CANT, ANDREW, a Scotch Presbyterian minister, who had an equal zeal
for the Scotch covenant and the cause of Charles Stuart (1610-1664). A
son of his was Principal of Edinburgh University from 1675 to 1685.


CANTABRI, the original inhabitants of the N. of Spain; presumed to
be the ancestors of the Basques.


CANTACUZE`NUS, JOHN, emperor of the East; an able statesman, who
acting as regent for the heir, had himself crowned king, but was driven
to resign at length; retired to a monastery on Mount Athos, where he
wrote a history of his time; died in 1411, 100 years old.


CANTARINI, SIMONE, an Italian painter, born at Pesaro; a pupil of
Guido and a rival, but only an imitator from afar (1612-1648).


CANTERBURY (23), in E. Kent, on the Stour, by rail 62 m. SE. of
London; is the ecclesiastical capital of England; the cathedral was
founded A.D. 597 by St. Augustin; the present building belongs to
various epochs, dating as far back as the 11th century; it contains many
interesting monuments, statues, and tombs, among the latter that of
Thomas a Becket, murdered in the north transept, 1170; the cloisters,
chapter-house, and other buildings occupy the site of the old monastic
houses; the city is rich in old churches and ecclesiastical monuments;
there is an art gallery; trade is chiefly in hops and grain. Kit Marlowe
was a native.


CANTERBURY (128), a district in New Zealand, in the centre of the
South Island, on the east side of which are the Canterbury Plains or
Downs, a great pasture-land for sheep of over three million acres.


CANTERBURY TALES, a body of tales by Chaucer, conceived of as
related by a small company of pilgrims from London to the shrine of
Thomas a Becket at Canterbury. They started from the Tabard Inn at
Southwark, and agreed to tell each a tale going and each another coming
back, the author of the best tale to be treated with a supper. None of
the tales on the homeward journey are given.


CANTICLES, a book in the Bible erroneously ascribed to Solomon, and
called in Hebrew the Song of Songs, about the canonicity and
interpretation of which there has been much debate, though, as regards
the latter, recent criticism inclines, if there is any unity in it at
all, to the conclusion that it represents a young maiden seduced into the
harem of Solomon, who cannot be persuaded to transfer to the king the
affection she has for a shepherd in the northern hills of Galilee, her
sole beloved; the aim of the author presumed by some to present a
contrast between the morals of the south and those of the north, in
justification possibly of the secession. It was for long, and is by some
still, believed to be an allegory in which the Bridegroom represents
Christ and the Bride His Church.


CANTON (1,800), chief commercial city and port of Southern China;
stands on a river almost on the seaboard, 90 m. NW. of Hong-Kong, and is
a healthy town, but with a heavy rainfall; it is surrounded by walls, has
narrow crooked streets, 125 temples, mostly Buddhist, and two pagodas, 10
and 13 centuries old respectively; great part of the population live in
boats on the river; the fancy goods, silk, porcelain, ivory, and metal
work are famous; its river communication with the interior has fostered
an extensive commerce; exports, tea, silk, sugar, cassia, &c.


CANTON, JOHN, an ingenious experimentalist in physics, and
particularly in electricity, born at Stroud; discovered the means of
making artificial magnets and the compressibility of water (1718-1772).


CANTU, CAESARE, an Italian historian, born in Lombardy; imprisoned by
the Austrian government for his bold advocacy of liberal views, but at
length liberated; wrote, among a number of other works, literary as well
as historical, a "Universal History" in 35 vols. (1807-1895).


CANUTE, or CNUT, THE DANE, called the Great, son of Sweyn, king
of Denmark; invaded England, and after a success or two was elected king
by his fleet; the claim was repudiated by the Saxons, and he had to flee;
returned in 1015, and next year, though London held out for a time,
carried all before him; on the death of his sole rival became undisputed
king of England, and ruled it as an Englishman born, wisely, equitably,
and well, though the care of governing Denmark and Norway lay on his
shoulders as well; died in England, and was buried in Winchester Minster;
every one is familiar with the story of the rebuke he administered to the
courtiers by showing how regardless the waves of the sea were of the
authority of a king (994-1035).


CAPE BRETON (92), the insular portion of the prov. of Nova Scotia at
its eastern extremity, 100 m. long and 85 broad; is covered with forests
of pine, oak, &c., and exports timber and fish.


CAPE COAST CASTLE (11), capital of the Gold Coast colony.


CAPE COLONY (1,527), comprises the extremity of the African
continent south of the Orange River and Natal, and is nearly twice the
size of the United Kingdom; the Nieuwveld Berge, running E. and W.,
divides the country into two slopes, the northern slope long and gradual
to the Orange River, the southern shorter and terraced to the sea;
two-thirds of the country is arid plain, which, however, only requires
irrigation to render it very fertile; the climate is dry and healthy, but
hot in summer; the prevalent vegetation is heath and bulbous plants.
Sheep and ostrich farming are the chief industries; wool, goats' hair,
ostrich feathers, hides, diamonds from Kimberley and copper from
Namaqualand are the chief exports; two-thirds of the people are of
African race, chiefly Kaffirs, who flourish under British rule; the
remainder are of Dutch, English, French, and German origin; Cape Town is
the capital, Kimberley and Port Elizabeth the only other large towns, but
there are many small towns; roads are good; railway and telegraph
communication is rapidly developing. The government is in the hands of a
governor, appointed by the crown, assisted by an executive council of
five and a parliament of two houses; local government is in vogue all
over the country; education is well cared for; the university of the Cape
of Good Hope was founded in 1873. Discovered by the Portuguese Diaz in
1486, the Cape was taken possession of by the Dutch in 1652, from whom it
was captured by Great Britain in 1805. Various steps towards
self-government culminated in 1872. In recent years great tracts to the
N. have been formally taken under British protection, and the policy of
extending British sway from the Cape to Cairo is explicitly avowed.


CAPE HORN, a black, steep, frowning rock at the SE. extremity of the
Fuegean Islands; much dreaded at one time by sailors.


CAPE OF GOOD HOPE, a cape in South Africa, discovered by Diaz in
1486; called at first "Cape of Storms," from the experience of the first
navigators; altered in consideration of the promised land reached beyond.


CAPE TOWN (84), capital of Cape Colony, situated at the head of
Table Bay, on the SW. coast, with Table Mountain rising behind it; is a
regularly built, flat-roofed, imposing town, with handsome buildings and
extensive Government gardens; well drained, paved, and lit, and with a
good water supply. The Government buildings and law courts, museum and
art gallery, bank and exchange, are its chief architectural features. It
has docks, and a graving dock, and is a port of call for vessels of all
nations, with a thriving commerce.


CAPE VERDE ISLANDS (110), a group of mountainous, volcanic islands,
belonging to Portugal, 350 m. from Cape Verde, on the W. of Africa, of
which 10 are inhabited, the largest and most productive Santiago and St.
Vincent, with an excellent harbour, oftenest visited. These islands are
unhealthy, and cattle-breeding is the chief industry.


CAPELL, EDWARD, an inspector of plays, born at Bury St. Edmunds;
spent 20 years in editing the text of Shakespeare, in three vols., with
notes and various readings (1713-1781).


CAPELLA, a reddish star of the first magnitude in the northern
constellation of Auriga.


CAPELLA, an encyclopaedist, born in North Africa in the 5th century;
author of a work called the "Satiricon," a strange medley of curious
learning.


CAPERCAILZIE, the wood-grouse, a large game-bird found in fir woods
in mountainous districts, and highly esteemed for table.


CAPERNAUM, a town on the N. side of the Sea of Galilee, the centre
of Christ's labours, the exact site of which is uncertain.


CAPET, the surname of Hugh, the founder, in 987, of the third
dynasty of French kings, which continued to rule France till 1328, though
the name is applied both to the Valois dynasty, which ruled till 1589,
and the Bourbon, which ruled till 1848, Louis XVI. having been officially
designated as a Capet at his trial, and under that name sentenced to the
guillotine.


CAPGRAVE, JOHN, Augustine friar, wrote "Chronicle of England," and
voluminously both in French and English (1393-1464).


CAPISTRANO, GIOVANNI DA, an Italian Franciscan, a rabid adversary of
the Hussites, aided John Hunniades in 1456 in defending Belgrade against
the Turks (1385-1456).


CAPITOL, a temple and citadel erected by Tarquin on the Capitoline
Hill, one of the seven hills of Rome, and where victors who were voted a
triumph were crowned; terminated at its southern extremity by Tarpeian
Rock, from which criminals guilty of treason were precipitated; hence the
saying, "The Tarpeian Rock is near the Capitol," to denote the close
connection between glory and disgrace.


CAPITULARIES, collections of royal edicts issued by the Frankish
kings of the Carlovingian dynasty, with sanction of the nobles, for the
whole Frankish empire, as distinct from the laws for the separate peoples
comprising it, the most famous being those issued or begun by Charlemagne
and St. Louis.


CAPO D'ISTRIA, COUNT OF, born in Corfu; entered the Russian
diplomatic service; played a prominent part in the insurrection of the
Greeks against Turkey; made President of the Greek Republic; assassinated
at Nauplia from distrust of his fidelity (1776-1831).


CAPO D'ISTRIA, a port of a small island in the government of
Trieste, connected with the mainland by a causeway half a mile in length.


CAPPADOCIA, an ancient country in the heart of Asia Minor, of varied
political fortune; a plateau with pastures for immense flocks.


CAPRARA, CARDINAL, born at Bologna, legate of Pius VII. in France,
concluded the "Concordat" of 1801 (1733-1810).


CAPRE`RA, a small, barren island off the N. coast of Sardinia, the
home of Garibaldi, where he died, and his burial-place.


CAPRI, a small island at the entrance from the S. of the bay of
Naples, with a capital of the same name on the eastern side; a favourite
retreat of the Emperors Augustus and Tiberius, and noted for its fine air
and picturesque scenery.


CAPRIVI, COUNT, born in Berlin, entered the army in 1849; held chief
posts in the Austrian and Franco-German wars; in 1890 succeeded Bismarck
as Imperial Chancellor; resigned in 1894 (1831-1899).


CAPUA (11), a fortified city in Campania, on the Volturno, 27 m. N.
of Naples, where, or rather near which, in a place of the same name,
Hannibal, at the invitation of the citizens, retired with his army to
spend the winter after the battle of Cannae, 216 B.C., and where, from
the luxurious life they led, his soldiers were enervated, after which it
was taken by the Romans, destroyed by the Saracens in 840, and the modern
city built in its stead.


CAPUCHINS, monks of the Franciscan Order, founded in 1526, so called
from a cowl they wear; they were a mendicant order, and were twice over
suppressed by the Pope, though they exist still in Austria and
Switzerland.


CAPULETS, a celebrated Ghibelline family of Verona at mortal feud
with that of the Montagues, familiar to us through Shakespeare's "Romeo
and Juliet," Romeo being of the latter and Juliet of the former.


CAPYBA`RA, the water-hog, the largest rodent extant, in appearance
like a small pig.


CARACALLA, a Roman emperor, son of Septimius Severus, born at Lyons;
his reign (211-217) was a series of crimes, follies, and extravagances;
he put to death 20,000 persons, among others the jurist Papinianus, and
was assassinated himself by one of his guards.


CARACAS or CARRACAS (72), the cap. of Venezuela, stands at an
altitude 3000 ft. above the level of the sea; subject to earthquakes, in
one of which (1812) 12,000 perished, and great part of the city was
destroyed; it contains the tomb of Bolivar.


CARACCI or CARRACCI, a family of painters, born at Bologna:
LUDOVICO, the founder of a new school of painting, the principle of
which was eclecticism, in consequence of which it is known as the
Eclectic School, or imitation of the styles of the best masters
(1555-1619); ANNIBALE, cousin and pupil, did "St. Roche distributing
Alms," and his chief, "Three Marys weeping over Christ"; went to Rome and
painted the celebrated Farnese gallery, a work which occupied him four
years (1560-1609); AGOSTINO, brother of above, assisted him in the
frescoes of the gallery, the "Communion of St. Jerome" his greatest work
(1557-1602).


CARACTACUS, a British chief, king of the Silures, maintained a
gallant struggle against the Romans for nine years, but was overthrown by
Ostorius, 50 A.D., taken captive, and led in triumphal procession
through Rome, when the Emperor Claudius was so struck with his dignified
demeanour, that he set him and all his companions at liberty.


CARADOC, a knight of the Round Table, famous for his valour and the
chastity and constancy of his wife.


CARAFFA, a distinguished Neapolitan family, which gave birth to a
number of distinguished ecclesiastics, Paul IV. one of them.


CARAGLIO, an eminent Italian engraver, born at Verona, engraved on
gems and medals as well as copper-plate, after the works of the great
masters (1500-1570).


CARAVAGGIO, an Italian painter, disdained the ideal and the ideal
style of art, and kept generally to crass reality, often in its grossest
forms; a man of a violent temper, which hastened his end; a painting by
him of "Christ and the Disciples at Emmaus" is in the National Gallery,
London (1569-1609).


CARAVANSERAI, a large unfurnished inn, with a court in the middle
for the accommodation of caravans and other travellers at night in the
East.


CARBOHYDRATES, a class of substances such as the sugars, starch,
&c., consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the latter in the
proportion in which they exist in water.


CARBONARI (lit. _charcoal burners_), a secret society that, in the
beginning of the 19th century, originated in Italy and extended itself
into France, numbering hundreds of thousands, included Lord Byron, Silvio
Pellico, and Mazzini among them, the object of which was the overthrow of
despotic governments; they were broken up by Austria, and absorbed by the
Young Italy party.


CARDAN, JEROME, Italian physician and mathematician, born at Pavia;
was far-famed as a physician; studied and wrote on all manner of known
subjects, made discoveries in algebra, believed in astrology, left a
candid account of himself entitled "De Vita Propria"; was the author of
"Cardan's Formula" a formula for the solution of cubic equations; he is
said to have starved himself to death so as to fulfil a prophecy he had
made as to the term of his life (1501-1576).


CARDIFF (129), county town of Glamorganshire, S. Wales, on the river
Taff, the sea outlet for the mineral wealth and products of the district,
a town that has risen more rapidly than any other in the kingdom, having
had at the beginning of the century only 2000 inhabitants; it has a
university, a number of churches, few of them belonging to the Church of
England, and has also three daily papers.


CARDIGAN, EARL OF, a British officer; commanded the Light Cavalry
Brigade in the Crimean war, and distinguished himself in the famous
charge of the Six Hundred, which he led; his favourite regiment, the 11th
Hussars, on the equipment of which he lavished large sums of money
(1797-1868).


CARDIGANSHIRE (62), a county in S. Wales, low-lying on the coast,
level towards the coast, and mountainous in the interior, but with
fertile valleys.


CARDINAL VIRTUES, these have been "arranged by the wisest men of all
time, under four general heads," and are defined by Ruskin as "Prudence
or Discretion (the spirit which discerns and adopts rightly), Justice
(the spirit which rules and divides rightly), Fortitude (the spirit that
persists and endures rightly), and Temperance (the spirit which stops and
refuses rightly). These cardinal and sentinel virtues," he adds, "are not
only the means of protecting and prolonging life itself, but are the
chief guards or sources of the material means of life, and the governing
powers and princes of economy."


CARDINALISTS, name given to the partisans in France of Richelieu and
Mazarin.


CARDUCCI, Florentine artists, brothers, of the 17th century; did
their chief work in Spain.


CARDUCCI, GIOSUE, an Italian poet and critic; author of "Hymn to
Satan," "Odi Barbari," "Commentaries on Petrarch," &c.; _b_. 1837.


CAREW, THOMAS, English courtier poet; his poems, chiefly masks and
lyrics (1589-1639).


CAREY, HENRY, English poet and musician, excelled in ballads;
composed "Sally in Our Alley"; _d_. 1743.


CAREY, SIR ROBERT, warden of the Border Marches under Elizabeth;
present at her deathbed rode off post-haste on the occurrence of the
death with the news to Edinburgh to announce it to King James
(1560-1639).


CAREY, WILLIAM, celebrated Baptist missionary, born in
Northamptonshire; founder of the Baptist Missionary Society, and its
first missionary; founded the mission at Serampore and directed its
operations, distributing Bibles and tracts by thousands in native
languages, as well as preparing grammars and dictionaries; was 29 years
Oriental professor in the College of Fort William. Calcutta (1761-1834).


CARGILL, DONALD, a Scotch Covenanter, born in Perthshire; was
minister of the Barony Parish, Glasgow; fought at Bothwell Brig; suffered
at the Cross of Edinburgh for daring to excommunicate the king; died with
the faith and courage of a martyr (1619-1681).


CARIA, a SW. country in Asia Minor, bordering on the Archipelago, of
which the Maeander is the chief river.


CARIBBEAN SEA, an inland sea of the Atlantic, lying between the
Great Antilles and South America, subject to hurricanes; it corresponds
to the Mediterranean in Europe, and is the turning-point of the Gulf
Stream.


CARIBS, a race of American Indians, originally inhabiting the West
Indies, now confined to the southern shores of the Caribbean Sea, as far
as the mouth of the Amazon; they are a fine race, tall, and of
ruddy-brown complexion, but have lost their distinctive physique by
amalgamation with other tribes; they give name to the Caribbean Sea.


CARINTHIA (361), since 1849 crownland of Austria, near Italy; is a
mountainous and a mineral country; rears cattle and horses; manufactures
hardware and textile fabrics; the principal river is the Drave; capital,
Klagenfurt.


CARISBROOKE, a village in the Isle of Wight, in the castle of which,
now in ruins, Charles I. was imprisoned 13 months before his trial; it
was at one time a Roman station.


CARLEN, EMILIA, Swedish novelist; her novels, some 30 in number,
treat of the everyday life of the lower and middle classes (1807-1883).


CARLETON, WILLIAM, Irish novelist; his first work, and the
foundation of his reputation, "Traits and Stories of the Irish
Peasantry," followed by others of a like class (1794-1860).


CARLI, Italian archaeologist, numismatist, and economist, born at
Capo d'Istria; wrote as his chief work on political economy; president of
the Council of Commerce at Milan (1720-1795).


CARLILE, RICHARD, English Radical and Freethinker, born in
Devonshire; a disciple of Tom Paine's, and propagandist of his views with
a zeal which no prosecution could subdue, although he time after time
suffered imprisonment for it, as well as those who associated themselves
with him, his wife included; his principal organ was "The Republican,"
the first twelve volumes of which are dated from his prison; he was a
martyr for the freedom of the press, and in that interest did not suffer
in vain (1790-1843).


CARLISLE (39), county town of Cumberland, on the Eden; a great
railway centre; with an old castle of historical interest, and a
cathedral founded by William Rufus and dedicated to Henry I.


CARLISLE, GEORGE FREDERICK WILLIAM HOWARD, EARL OF, a Whig in
politics; supported the successive Whig administrations of his time, and
became eventually Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland under Palmerston
(1802-1864).


CARLISTS, a name given in France to the partisans of Charles X.
(1830), and especially in Spain to those of Don Carlos (1833), and those
of his grandson (1873-1874).


CARLOMAN, son of Charles Martel, and brother of Pepin le Bref, king
of Austrasia from 741 to 747; abdicated, and retired into a monastery,
where he died.


CARLOMAN, son of Pepin le Bref, and brother of Charlemagne, king of
Austrasia, Burgundy, and Provence in 768; _d_. 771.


CARLOMAN, king of France conjointly with his brother Louis III.;
_d_. 884.


CARLOS, DON, son of Philip II. of Spain, born at Valladolid, and
heir to the throne, but from incapacity, or worse, excluded by his father
from all share in the government; confessed to a priest a design to
assassinate some one, believed to be his father; was seized, tried, and
convicted, though sentence against him was never pronounced; died shortly
after; the story of Don Carlos has formed the subject of tragedies,
especially one by Schiller, the German poet (1545-1568).


CARLOS, DON, the brother of Ferdinand VII. of Spain, on whose death
he laid claim to the crown as heir, against Isabella, Ferdinand's
daughter who by the Salic law, though set aside in her favour by her
father, had, he urged, no right to the throne; his cause was taken up by
a large party, and the struggle kept up for years; defeated at length he
retired from the contest, and abdicated in favour of his son
(1785-1855).


CARLOS, DON, grandson of the preceding, and heir to his rights;
revived the struggle in 1870, but fared no better than his grandfather;
took refuge in London; _b_. 1848.


CARLOVINGIANS, or KARLINGS, the name of the second dynasty of
Frankish kings, in succession to the Merovingian, which had become
_faineant_; bore sway from 762 to 987, Pepin le Bref the first, and Louis
V. the last; Charlemagne was the greatest of the race, and gave name to
the dynasty.


CALLOW (40), an inland county in Leinster, Ireland; also the county
town.


CARLOWITZ, a town on the Danube, 30 m. NW. of Belgrade, where a
treaty was concluded in 1699 between Turkey and other European powers,
very much to the curtailment of the territories of the former.


CARLSBAD (10), a celebrated watering-place in Bohemia, of
aristocratic resort, the springs being the hottest in Europe, the water
varying from 117 deg. to 165 deg.; population nearly trebled in the season; the
inhabitants are engaged in industries which minister to the tastes of the
visitors and their own profit.


CARLSCRONA (21), a Swedish town, strongly fortified, on the Baltic,
with a spacious harbour, naval station, and arsenal; it is built on five
rocky islands united by dykes and bridges.


CARLSRUHE (73), the capital of the Grand-Duchy of Baden, a great
railway centre; built in the form of a fan, its streets, 32 in number,
radiating so from the duke's palace in the centre.


CARLSTADT, a German Reformer, associated for a time with Luther, but
parted from him both on practical and dogmatical grounds; succeeded
Zwingli as professor at Basel (1483-1541).


CARLTON CLUB, the Conservative club in London, so called, as erected
on the site of Carlton House, demolished in 1828, and occupied by George
IV. when he was Prince of Wales.


CARLYLE, ALEXANDER, surnamed Jupiter Carlyle, from his noble head
and imposing person, born in Dumfriesshire; minister of Inveresk,
Musselburgh, from 1747 to his death; friend of David Hume, Adam Smith,
and Home, the author of "Douglas"; a leader of the Moderate party in the
Church of Scotland; left an "Autobiography," which was not published till
1860, which shows its author to have been a man who took things as he
found them, and enjoyed them to the full as any easy-going, cultured
pagan (1722-1805).


CARLYLE, THOMAS, born in the village of Ecclefechan, Annandale,
Dumfriesshire; son of James Carlyle, a stone-mason, and afterwards a
small farmer, a man of great force, penetration, and integrity of
character, and of Margaret Aitken, a woman of deep piety and warm
affection; educated at the parish school and Annan Academy; entered the
University of Edinburgh at the age of 14, in the Arts classes;
distinguished himself early in mathematics; enrolled as a student in the
theological department; became a teacher first in Annan Academy, then at
Kirkcaldy; formed there an intimate friendship with Edward Irving; threw
up both school-mastering and the church; removed to Edinburgh, and took
to tutoring and working for an encyclopedia, and by-and-by to translating
from the German and writing criticisms for the Reviews, the latter of
which collected afterwards in the "Miscellanies," proved "epoch-making"
in British literature, wrote a "Life of Schiller"; married Jane Welsh, a
descendant of John Knox; removed to Craigenputtock, in Dumfriesshire,
"the loneliest nook in Britain," where his original work began with
"Sartor Resartus," written in 1831, a radically spiritual book, and a
symbolical, though all too exclusively treated as a speculative, and an
autobiographical; removed to London in 1834, where he wrote his "French
Revolution" (1837), a book instinct with the all-consuming fire of the
event which it pictures, and revealing "a new moral force" in the
literary life of the country and century; delivered three courses of
lectures to the _elite_ of London Society (1837-1840), the last of them
"Heroes and Hero-Worship," afterwards printed in 1840; in 1840 appeared
"Chartism," in 1843 "Past and Present," and in 1850 "Latter-Day
Pamphlets"; all on what he called the "Condition-of-England-Question,"
which to the last he regarded, as a subject of the realm, the most
serious question of the time, seeing, as he all along taught and felt,
the social life affects the individual life to the very core; in 1845 he
dug up a hero literally from the grave in his "Letters and Speeches of
Oliver Cromwell," and after writing in 1851 a brief biography of his
misrepresented friend, John Sterling, concluded (1858-1865) his life's
task, prosecuted from first to last, in "sore travail" of body and soul,
with "The History of Friedrich II. of Prussia, called Frederick the
Great," "the last and grandest of his works," says Froude; "a book," says
Emerson, "that is a Judgment Day, for its moral verdict on men and
nations, and the manners of modern times"; lies buried beside his own
kindred in the place where he was born, as he had left instructions to
be. "The man," according to Ruskin, his greatest disciple, and at
present, as would seem, the last, "who alone of all our masters of
literature, has written, without thought of himself, what he knew to be
needful for the people of his time to hear, if the will to hear had been
in them ... the solitary Teacher who has asked them to be (before all)
brave for the help of Man, and just for the love of God" (1795-1881).


CARMAGNOLE, a Red-republican song and dance.


CARMARTHENSHIRE (30), a county in S. Wales, and the largest in the
Principality; contains part of the coal-fields in the district; capital
Carmarthen, on the right bank of the Towy, a river which traverses the
county.


CARMEL, a NW. extension of the limestone ridge that bounds on the S.
the Plain of Esdraelon, in Palestine, and terminates in a rocky
promontory 500 ft. high; forms the southern boundary of the Bay of Acre;
its highest point is 1742 ft. above the sea-level.


CARMELITES, a monastic order, originally an association of hermits
on Mount Carmel, at length mendicant, called the Order of Our Lady of
Mount Carmel, i. e. the Virgin, in consecration to whom it was founded
by a pilgrim of the name Berthold, a Calabrian, in 1156. The Order is
said to have existed from the days of Elijah.


CARMEN SYLVA, the _nom-de-plume_ of Elizabeth, queen of Roumania;
lost an only child, and took to literature for consolation; has taken an
active interest in the elevation and welfare of her sex; _b_. 1843.


CARMONTEL, a French dramatist; author of little pieces under the
name of "Proverbes" (1717-1806).


CARNAC, a seaside fishing-village in the Bay of Quiberon, in the
dep. of Morbihan, France, with interesting historical records,
particularly Celtic, many of them undecipherable by the antiquary.


CARNARVON, a maritime county in N. Wales, with the highest mountains
and grandest scenery in the Principality, and a capital of the same name
on the Menai Strait, with the noble ruins of a castle, in which Edward
II., the first Prince of Wales, was born.


CARNARVON, HENRY HOWARD, Earl of, Conservative statesman; held
office under Lord Derby and Disraeli; was a good classical scholar; wrote
the "Druses of Mount Lebanon" (1831-1890).


CARNATIC, an old prov. in the Madras Presidency of India that
extended along the Coromandel coast from Cape Comorin, 600 m. N.


CARNEADES, a Greek philosopher, born at Cyrene; his whole philosophy
a polemic against the dogmatism of the Stoics, on the alleged ground of
the absence of any criterion of certainty in matters of either science or
morality; conceded that truth and virtue were admirable qualities, but he
denied the reality of them; sent once on an embassy to Rome, he
propounded this doctrine in the ears of the Conscript Fathers, upon which
Cato moved he should be expelled from the senate-house and sent back to
Athens, where he came from (213-129 B.C.).


CARNEGIE, ANDREW, ironmaster, born in Dunfermline, the son of a
weaver; made a large fortune by his iron and steel works at Pittsburg,
U.S., out of which he has liberally endowed institutions and libraries,
both in America and his native country; _b_. 1835.


CARNIOLA (500), a crownland of the Austrian empire, SW. of Austria,
on the Adriatic, S. of Carinthia; contains quicksilver mines, second only
to those of Almaden, in Spain; the surface is mountainous, and the soil
is not grain productive, though in some parts it yields wine and fine
fruit.


CARNIVAL, in Roman Catholic countries the name given to a season of
feasting and revelry immediately preceding Lent, akin to the Saturnalia
of the Romans.


CARNOT, LEONARD SADI, son of Nicolas, founder of thermo-dynamics; in
his "Reflexions sur la Puissance du Feu" enunciates the principle of
Reversibility, considered the most important contribution to physical
science since the time of Newton (1796-1832). See DR. KNOTT'S
"PHYSICS."


CARNOT, MARIE FRANCOIS, civil engineer and statesman, born at
Limoges, nephew of the preceding; Finance Minister in 1879 and 1887;
became President in 1887; was assassinated at Lyons by an anarchist in
1894.


CARNOT, NICOLAS, French mathematician and engineer, born at Nolay,
in Burgundy; a member of the National Convention; voted for the death of
the king; became member of the Committee of Public Safety, and organiser
of the armies of the Republic, whence his name, the "organiser of
victory"; Minister of War under Napoleon; defender of Antwerp in 1814;
and afterwards Minister of the Interior (1753-1823).


CARO, ANNIBALE, an Italian author and poet, notable for his classic
style (1507-1566).


CARO, MARIE, a French philosopher, born at Poitiers; a popular
lecturer on philosophy, surnamed _le philosophe des dames_; wrote on
mysticism, materialism, and pessimism (1826-1887).


CAROLINA, NORTH, one of the original 13 States of N. America, on the
Atlantic, about the size of England, S. of Virginia, 480 m. from E. to W.
and 180 m. from N. to S.; has a fertile, well-watered subsoil in the high
lands; is rich in minerals and natural products; the mountains are
covered with forests, and the manufactures are numerous.


CAROLINA, SOUTH, S. of N. Carolina, is alluvial with swamps, 100 m.
inland from the coast, is well watered; produces rice and cotton in large
quantities and of a fine quality.


CAROLINE ISLANDS (36), a stretch of lagoon islands, 2000 m. from E.
to W., belonging to Spain, N. of New Guinea and E. of the Philippine
Islands; once divided into eastern, western, and central; the soil of the
western is fertile, and there is plenty of fish and turtle in the
lagoons.


CAROLINE OF BRUNSWICK, queen of George IV. and daughter of the Duke
of Brunswick; married George, then Prince of Wales, in 1795; gave birth
to the Princess Charlotte the year following, but almost immediately
after her husband abandoned her; she retired to a mansion at Blackheath;
was allowed to go abroad after a time; on the accession of her husband
she was offered a pension of L50,000 if she stayed out of the country,
but rejected it and claimed her rights as queen; was charged with
adultery, but after a long trial acquitted; on the day of the coronation
sought admission to Westminster Abbey, but the door was shut against her;
she died a fortnight after (1768-1821).


CARON, LIEUTENANT-COLONEL, under the first Empire; head of the
Belford conspiracy in 1820 under the Restoration; executed 1822.


CARPACCIO, VITTORE, a Venetian painter of great celebrity,
particularly in his early pieces, for his truth of delineation, his
fertile imagination, and his rich colouring; his works are numerous, and
have nearly all of them sacred subjects; an Italian critic says of him,
"He had truth in his heart" (1450-1522).


CARPATHIANS, a range of wooded mountains in Central Europe, 880 m.
long, which, in two great masses, extend from Presburg to Orsova, both on
the Danube, in a semicircle round the greater part of Hungary,
particularly the whole of the N. and E., the highest of them Negoi, 8517
ft., they are rich in minerals, and their sides clothed with forests,
principally of beech and pine.


CARPEAUX, JEAN BAPTISTE, sculptor, born at Valenciennes; adorned by
his art, reckoned highly imaginative, several of the public monuments of
Paris, and the facade of the Opera House (1827-1875).


CARPENTARIA, GULF OF, a broad, deep gulf in the N. of Australia;
contains several islands, and receives several rivers.


CARPENTER, MARY, a philanthropist, born at Exeter, daughter of Dr.
Lant Carpenter, Unitarian minister; took an active part in the
establishment of reformatory and ragged schools, and a chief promoter of
the Industrial Schools Act; her philanthropic efforts extended to India,
which, in her zeal, she visited four times, and she was the founder of
the National Indian Association (1807-1877).


CARPENTER, WILLIAM BENJAMIN, biologist, brother of the preceding;
author, among other numerous works, of the "Principles of General and
Comparative Physiology" (1838); contributed to mental physiology; held
several high professional appointments in London; inaugurated deep-sea
soundings, and advocated the theory of a vertical circulation in the
ocean (1813-1877).


CARPI, GIROLAMO DA, Italian painter and architect, born at Ferrara;
successful imitator of Correggio (1501-1556).


CARPI, UGO DA, Italian painter and wood engraver; is said to have
invented engraving in chiaroscuro (1486-1530).


CARPINI, a Franciscan monk, born in Umbria; headed an embassy from
Pope Innocent IV. to the Emperor of the Mogul Tartars to persuade him out
of Europe, which he threatened; was a corpulent man of 60; travelled from
Lyons to beyond Lake Baikal and back; wrote a report of his journey in
Latin, which had a quieting effect on the panic in Europe (1182-1252).


CARPIO, a legendary hero of the Moors of Spain; is said to have
slain Roland at Roncesvalles.


CARPOC`RATES, a Gnostic of Alexandria of the 2nd century, who
believed in the transmigration of the soul and its final emancipation
from all external bonds and obligations, by means of concentrated
meditation on the divine unity, and a life in conformity therewith; was
the founder of a sect called after his name.


CARRARA (11), a town in N. Italy, 30 m. NW. of Leghorn; famous for
its quarries of white statuary marble, the working of which is its staple
industry; these quarries have been worked for 2000 years, are 400 in
number, and employ as quarrymen alone regularly over 3000 men.


CARREL, ARMAND, French publicist, born at Rouen; a man of high
character, and highly esteemed; editor of the _National_, which he
conducted with great ability, and courage; died of a wound in a duel with
Emile de Girardin (1800-1836).


CARRICK, the southern division of Ayrshire. See AYRSHIRE.


CARRICKFERGUS (9), a town and seaport N. of Belfast Lough, 91/2 m.
from Belfast, with a picturesque castle.


CARRIER, JEAN BAPTISTE, one of the most blood-thirsty of the French
Revolutionists, born near Aurillac; an attorney by profession; sent on a
mission to La Vendee; caused thousands of victims to be drowned,
beheaded, or shot; was guillotined himself after trial by a Revolutionary
tribunal (1756-1794). See NOYADES.


CARRIERE, MORITZ, a German philosopher and man of letters, born in
Hesse, author of works on aesthetics and art in its relation to culture
and the ideal; advocated the compatibility of the pantheistic with the
deistic view of the world (1817-1893).


CARROL, LEWIS, pseudonym of C. L. DODGSON (q. v.), the
author of "Alice in Wonderland," with its sequel, "Through the
Looking-Glass."


CARSE, the name given in Scotland to alluvial lands bordering on a
river.


CARSON, KIT, American trapper, born in Kentucky; was of service to
the States in expeditions in Indian territories from his knowledge of the
habits of the Indians (1809-1878).


CARSTAIRS, WILLIAM, a Scotch ecclesiastic, born at Cathcart, near
Glasgow; sent to Utrecht to study theology; recommended himself to the
regard of the Prince of Orange, and became his political adviser;
accompanied him to England as chaplain in 1688, and had no small share in
bringing about the Revolution; controlled Church affairs in Scotland; was
made Principal of Edinburgh University; was chief promoter of the Treaty
of Union; was held in high esteem by his countrymen for his personal
character as well as his public services; was a most sagacious man
(1649-1715).


CARSTENS, ASMUS JAKOB, Danish artist, born in Sleswig; on the
appearance of his great picture, "The Fall of the Angels," rose at once
into fame; was admitted to the Berlin Academy; afterwards studied the
masters at Rome; brought back to Germany a taste for art; was the means
of reviving it; treated classical subjects; quarrelled the Academy; died
in poverty at Rome (1754-1798).


CARTAGENA (86), a naval port of Spain, on the Mediterranean, with a
capacious harbour; one of the oldest towns in it, founded by the
Carthaginians; was once the largest naval arsenal in Europe. Also capital
(12) of the Bolivar State in Colombia.


CARTE, THOMAS, historian, a devoted Jacobite, born near Rugby; wrote
a "History of England," which has proved a rich quarry of facts for
subsequent historians (1686-1754).


CARTE-BLANCHE, a blank paper with a signature to be filled up with
such terms of an agreement as the holder is authorised to accept in name
of the person whose signature it bears.


CARTER, ELIZABETH, an accomplished lady, born at Deal, friend of Dr.
Johnson, Sir Joshua Reynolds, and others; a great Greek and Italian
scholar; translated Epictetus and Algarotti's exposition of Newton's
philosophy; some of her papers appear in the _Rambler_ (1717-1806).


CARTERET, JOHN, EARL GRANVILLE, eminent British statesman, orator,
and diplomatist, entered Parliament in the Whig interest; his first
speech was in favour of the Protestant succession; after service as
diplomatist abroad, was made Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, in which
capacity he was brought into contact with Swift, first as an enemy but at
length as a friend, and proved a successful viceroy; in Parliament was
head of the party opposed to Sir Robert Walpole and of the subsequent
administration; his foreign policy has been in general approved of; had
the satisfaction of seeing, which he was instrumental in securing, the
elder Pitt installed in office before he retired; was a "fiery, emphatic
man" (1690-1763).


CARTERET, PHILIP, English sailor and explorer, explored in the
Southern Seas, and discovered several islands, Pitcairn's Island among
the number; _d_. 1796.


CARTHAGE, an ancient maritime city, on a peninsula in the N. of
Africa, near the site of Tunis, and founded by Phoenicians in 850 B.C.;
originally the centre of a colony, it became the capital of a wide-spread
trading community, which even ventured to compete with, and at one time
threatened, under Hannibal, to overthrow, the power of Rome, in a series
of protracted struggles known as the Punic Wars, in the last of which it
was taken and destroyed by Publius Cornelius Scipio in 146 B.C., after a
siege of two years, though it rose again as a Roman city under the
Caesars, and became a place of great importance till burned in A.D. 698
by Hassan, the Arab; the struggle during the early part of its history
was virtually a struggle for the ascendency of the Semitic people over
the Aryan race in Europe.


CARTHUSIANS, a monastic order of a very severe type, founded by St.
Bruno in 1086, each member of which had originally a single cell,
eventually one consisting of two or three rooms with a garden, all of
them opening into one corridor; they amassed considerable wealth, but
were given to deeds of benefaction, and spent their time in study and
contemplation, in consequence of which they figure not so much in the
outside world as many other orders do.


CARTIER, a French navigator, born at St. Malo, made three voyages to
N. America in quest of a North-West passage, at the instance of Francis
I.; took possession of Canada in the name of France, by planting the
French flag on the soil (1494-1554).


CARTOONS, drawings or designs made on stiff paper for a fresco or
other paintings, transferred by tracing or pouncing to the surface to be
painted, the most famous of which are those of Raphael.


CARTOUCHE, a notorious captain of a band of thieves, born in Paris,
who was broken on the wheel alive in the Place de Greve (1698-1721).


CARTWRIGHT, EDMUND, inventor of the powerloom and the carding
machine, born in Nottinghamshire; bred for the Church; his invention, at
first violently opposed, to his ruin for the time being, is now
universally adopted; a grant of L10,000 was made him by Parliament in
consideration of his services and in compensation for his losses; he had
a turn for versifying as well as mechanical invention (1743-1823).


CARTWRIGHT, JOHN, brother of the preceding; served in the navy and
the militia, but left both services for political reasons; took to the
study of agriculture, and the advocacy of radical political reform much
in advance of his time (1740-1824).


CARUS, KARL GUSTAV, a celebrated German physiologist, born at
Leipzig; a many-sided man; advocate of the theory that health of body and
mind depends on the equipoise of antagonistic principles (1789-1869).


CARY, HENRY FRANCIS, translator of Dante, born at Gibraltar; his
translation is admired for its fidelity as well as for its force and
felicity (1772-1844).


CARYATIDES, draped female figures surmounting columns and supporting
entablatures; the corresponding male figures are called Atlantes.


CASA, Italian statesman, Secretary of State under Pope Paul IV.;
wrote "Galateo; or, the Art of Living in the World" (1503-1556).


CASABIANCA, LOUIS, a French naval officer, born in Corsica, who, at
the battle of Aboukir, after securing the safety of his crew, blew up his
ship and perished along with his son, who would not leave him
(1755-1798).


CASA`LE (17), a town on the Po; manufactures silk twist.


CASANOVA, painter, born in London, of Venetian origin; painted
landscapes and battle-pieces (1727-1806).


CASANOVA DE SEINGALT, a clever Venetian adventurer and scandalous
impostor, of the Cagliostro type, who insinuated himself into the good
graces for a time of all the distinguished people of the period,
including even Frederick the Great, Voltaire, and others; died in Bohemia
after endless roamings and wrigglings, leaving, as Carlyle would say,
"the smell of brimstone behind him"; wrote a long detailed, brazen-faced
account of his career of scoundrelism (1725-1798).


CASAS, BARTOLOMEO DE LAS, a Spanish prelate, distinguished for his
exertions in behalf of the Christianisation and civilisation of the
Indians of S. America (1474-1566).


CASAUBON, ISAAC, an eminent classical scholar and commentator, born
in Geneva; professor of Greek at Geneva and Montpellier, and afterwards
of belles-lettres at Paris, invited thither by Henry IV., who pensioned
him; being a Protestant he removed to London on Henry's death, where
James I. gave him two prebends; has been ranked with Lepsius and Scaliger
as a scholar (1559-1614).


CASAUBON, MERIC, son of preceding; accompanied his father to
England; held a church living under the Charleses; became professor of
Theology at Oxford, and edited his father's works (1599-1671).


CASCADE MOUNTAINS, a range in Columbia that slopes down toward the
Pacific from the Western Plateau, of which the Rocky Mountains form the
eastern boundary; they are nearly parallel with the coast, and above 100
m. inland.


CASERTA (35), a town in Italy, 20 m. from Naples, noted for a
magnificent palace, built after plans supplied by Vanvitelli, one of the
architects of St. Peter's at Rome.


CASHEL, a town in Tipperary, Ireland, 49 m. NE. of Cork; a bishop's
see, with a "Rock" 300 ft. high, occupied by interesting ruins; it was
formerly the seat of the kings of Munster.


CASHMERE or KASHMIR (2,543), a native Indian State, bordering
upon Tibet, 120 m. long and 80 m. wide, with beautiful scenery and a
delicious climate, in a valley of the Himalayas, forming the basin of the
Upper Indus, hemmed in by deep-gorged woods and snow-peaked mountains,
and watered by the Jhelum, which spreads out here and there near it into
lovely lakes; shawl weaving and lacquer-work are the chief occupations of
the inhabitants.


CASIMIR, the name of five kings of Poland; the most eminent, Casimir
III., called the Great, after distinguishing himself in wars against the
Teutonic Knights, was elected king in 1333; recovered Silesia from
Bohemia in two victories; defeated the Tartars on the Vistula, and
annexed part of Lithuania; formed a code of laws, limiting both the royal
authority and that of the nobles (1309-1370).


CASIMIR-PERIER, president of the French Republic, born in Paris; a
man of moderate views and firm character; was premier in 1893; succeeded
Carnot in 1894; resigned 1895, because, owing to misrepresentation, the
office had become irksome to him; _b_. 1847.


CASINO, a club-house or public building in Continental towns
provided with rooms for social gatherings, music, dancing, billiards, &c.


CASIRI, a Syro-Maronite religious, and a learned Orientalist
(1710-1791).


CASPARI, KARL PAUL, German theologian, born at Dessau; professor at
Christiania (1814-1892).


CASPIAN SEA, an inland sea, partly in Europe and partly in Asia, the
largest in the world, being 600 m. from N. to S. and from 270 to 130 m.
in breadth, with the Caucasus Mts. on the W. and the Elburz on the S., is
the fragment of a larger sea which extended to the Arctic Ocean; shallow
in the N., deep in the S.; the waters, which are not so salt as the
ocean, abound in fish, especially salmon and sturgeon.


CASS, LEWIS, an eminent American statesman, a member of the
Democratic party, and openly hostile to Great Britain; though in favour
of slave-holding, a friend of Union; wrote a "History of the U.S.
Indians" (1782-1867).


CASSAGNAC, GRANIER DE, a French journalist; at first an Orleanist,
became a supporter of the Empire; started several journals, which all
died a natural death; edited _Le Pays_, a semi-official organ; embroiled
himself in duels and lawsuits without number (1806-1880).


CASSAGNAC, PAUL, son of preceding; editor of _Le Pays_ and the
journal _L'Autorite_; an obstinate Imperialist; _b_. 1843.


CASSANDER, king of Macedonia, passed over in the succession by his
father Antipater; allied himself with the Greek cities; invaded Macedonia
and ascended the throne; married Thessalonica, the sister of Alexander
the Great, but put Alexander's mother to death, thus securing himself
against all rival claimants; left his son Philip as successor
(354-297 B.C.).


CASSANDRA, a beautiful Trojan princess, daughter of Priam and
Hecuba, whom Apollo endowed with the gift of prophecy, but, as she had
rejected his suit, doomed to utter prophecies which no one would believe,
as happened with her warnings of the fate and the fall of Troy, which
were treated by her countrymen as the ravings of a lunatic; her name is
applied to any one who entertains gloomy forebodings.


CASSANO, a town in the S. of Italy; also a town near Milan, scene of
a French victory under Vendome in 1705, and a French defeat under Moreau
in 1799.


CASSATION, COURT OF, a court of highest and last appeal in France,
appointed in the case of appeal to revise the forms of a procedure in an
inferior court; it consists of a president and vice-president, 49 judges,
a public prosecutor called the _procureur-general_, and six
advocates-general; it consists of three sections: first, one to determine
if the appeal should be received; second, one to decide in civil cases;
and third, one to decide in criminal cases.


CASSEL (72), capital of Hesse-Cassel, an interesting town, 120 m.
from Frankfort-on-Main; it is the birthplace of Bunsen.


CASSELL, JOHN, the publisher, born in Manchester; a self-made man,
who knew the value of knowledge and did much to extend it (1817-1865).


CASSIANUS, JOANNUS, an Eastern ascetic; came to Constantinople, and
became a pupil of Chrysostom, who ordained him; founded two monasteries
in Marseilles; opposed the extreme views of Augustine in regard to grace
and free-will, and human depravity; and not being able to go the length
of Pelaganism, adopted SEMI-PELAGIANISM, q. v. (360-448).


CASSINI, name of a family of astronomers of the 17th and 18th
centuries, of Italian origin; distinguished for their observations and
discoveries affecting the comets, the planets, and the moon; they
settled, father and son and grandson, in Paris, and became in succession
directors of the observatory of Paris, the last of whom died in 1864,
after completing in 1793 a great topographical map of France begun by his
father.


CASSIODO`RUS, a Latin statesman and historian, born in Calabria;
prime minister of Theodoric the Great and his successor; retired into a
monastery about 70, and lived there nearly 30 years; wrote a history of
the Goths, and left letters of great historical value (468-568).


CASSIOPE`IA, queen of Ethiopia, mother of Andromeda, placed after
death among the constellations; a constellation well north in the
northern sky of five stars in the figure of a W.


CASSIQUIA`RI, a remarkable river in Venezuela, which, like a canal,
connects the Rio Negro, an affluent of the Amazon, with the Orinoco.


CASSITER`IDES, islands in the Atlantic, which the Phoenician sailors
visited to procure tin; presumed to have been the Scilly Islands or
Cornwall, which they adjoin.


CASSIUS, CAIUS, chief conspirator against Caesar; won over Brutus to
join in the foul plot; soon after the deed was done fled to Syria, made
himself master of it; joined his forces with those of Brutus at Philippi;
repulsed on the right, thought all was lost; withdrew into his tent, and
called his freedmen to kill him; Brutus, in his lamentation over him,
called him the "last of the Romans"; _d_. 42 B.C.


CASSIUS, SPURIUS, a Roman, thrice chosen consul, first time 502
B.C.; subdued the Sabines, made a league with the Latins, promoted an
agrarian law, the first passed, which conceded to the plebs a share in
the public lands.


CASSIVELLAUNUS, a British warlike chief, who unsuccessfully opposed
Caesar on his second invasion of Britain, 52 B.C.; surrendered after
defeat, and became tributary to Rome.


CASTALIA, a fountain at the foot of Parnassus sacred to the Muses;
named after a nymph, who drowned herself in it to escape Apollo.


CASTANET, bishop of Albi; procured the canonisation of St. Louis
(1256-1317).


CASTANOS, a Spanish general; distinguished for his victory over the
French under Dupont, whom he compelled to surrender and sign the
capitulation of Baylen, in 1808; after this he served under Wellington in
several engagements, and was commander of the Spanish army, ready, if
required, to invade France in 1815 (1758-1852).


CASTE, rank in society of an exclusive nature due to birth or
origin, such as prevails among the Hindus especially. Among them there
are originally two great classes, the twice-born and the once-born, _i.
e_. those who have passed through a second birth, and those who have not;
of the former there are three grades, Brahmans, or the priestly caste,
from the mouth of Brahma; Kshatriyas, or the soldier caste, from the
hands of Brahma; and Vaisyas, or the agricultural caste, from the feet of
Brahma; while the latter are of one rank and are menial to the other,
called Sudras, earth-born all; notwithstanding which distinction often
members of the highest class sink socially to the lowest level, and
members of the lowest rise socially to the highest.


CASTEL, RENE-RICHARD, French poet and naturalist (1758-1832).


CASTELAR, EMILIO, a Spanish republican, born in Cadiz; an eloquent
man and a literary; appointed dictator of Spain in 1873, but not being
equal to the exigency in the affairs of the State, resigned, and made way
for the return of monarchy, though under protest; wrote a history of the
"Republican Movement in Europe" among other works of political interest;
_b_. 1832.


CASTELLAMARE (15), a port on the coast of Italy, 115 m. SE. of
Naples, the scene of Pliny's death from the eruption of Vesuvius in A.D.
79. It takes its name from a castle built on it by the Emperor Frederick
II.; has a cathedral, arsenal, and manufactures.


CASTELLIO, Protestant theologian, a protege of Calvin's for a time,
till he gave expression to some heretical views, which led to a rupture;
he ventured to pronounce the Song of Solomon a mere erotic poem
(1515-1563).


CASTIGLIONE, a town of Sicily, on N. slope of Etna, 35 m. SW. of
Messina; famed for hazel nuts.


CASTIGLIONE, COUNT, an accomplished Italian, born in Mantua; author
of "II Cortegiano," a manual for courtiers, called by the Italians in
admiration of it "The Golden Book"; had spent much of his time in courts
in England and Spain, as well as Rome, and was a courtly man (1478-1529).


CASTILE, a central district of Spain, divided by the mountains of
Castile into Old Castile (1,800) in the N., and New Castile (3,500) in
the S.: the former consisting of a high bare plateau, bounded by
mountains on the N. and on the S., with a variable climate, yields wheat
and good pasturage, and is rich in minerals; the latter, also tableland,
has a richer soil, and yields richer produce, breeds horses and cattle,
and contains besides the quicksilver mines of Almaden. Both were at one
time occupied by the Moors, and were created into a kingdom in the 11th
century, and united to the crown of Spain in 1469 by the marriage of
Ferdinand and Isabella.


CASTLE GARDEN, the immigration depot of New York where immigrants
land, report themselves, and are advised where to settle or find work.


CASTLE OF INDOLENCE, a poem of Thomson's, a place in which the
dwellers live amid luxurious delights, to the enervation of soul and
body.


CASTLEFORD (14), a town 10 m. SE. of Leeds, with extensive
glass-works, especially bottles.


CASTLEREAGH, LORD, entered political life as a member of the Irish
Parliament, co-operated with Pitt in securing the Union, after which he
entered the Imperial Parliament, became War Minister (1805), till the
ill-fated Walcheren expedition and a duel with Canning obliged him to
resign; became Foreign Secretary in 1812, and the soul of the coalition
against Napoleon; represented the country in a congress after Napoleon's
fall; succeeded his father as Marquis of Londonderry in 1821, and
committed suicide the year following; his name has been unduly defamed,
and his services to the country as a diplomatist have been entirely
overlooked (1769-1822).


CASTLES IN SPAIN, visionary projects.


CASTLETOWN, a seaport in the Isle of Man, 11 m. SW. of Douglas, and
the former capital.


CASTLEWOOD, the heroine in Thackeray's "Esmond."


CASTOR AND POLLUX, the Dioscuri, the twin sons of Zeus by Leda;
great, the former in horsemanship, and the latter in boxing; famed for
their mutual affection, so that when the former was slain the latter
begged to be allowed to die with him, whereupon it was agreed they should
spend a day in Hades time about; were raised eventually to become stars
in the sky, the Gemini, twin signs in the zodiac, rising and setting
together; this name is also given to the electric phenomenon called
ST. ELMO'S FIRE (q. v.).


CASTREN, MATHIAS ALEXANDER, an eminent philologist, born in Finland,
professor of the Finnish Language and Literature in Helsingfors;
travelled all over Northern Europe and Asia, and left accounts of the
races he visited and their languages; translated the "KALEVALA"
(q. v.) the epic of the Finns; died prematurely, worn out with his
labours (1813-1852).


CASTRES (22), a town in the dep. of Tarn, 46 m. E. of Toulouse; was
a Roman station, and one of the first places in France to embrace
Calvinism.


CASTRO, GUILLEN DE, a Spanish dramatist, author of the play of "The
Cid," which gained him European fame; he began life as a soldier, got
acquainted with Lope de Vega, and took to dramatic composition
(1569-1631).


CASTRO, INEZ DE, a royal heiress of the Spanish throne in the 14th
century, the beloved wife of Don Pedro, heir of the Portuguese throne;
put to death out of jealousy of Spain by the latter's father, but on his
accession dug out of her grave, arrayed in her royal robes, and crowned
along with him, after which she was entombed again, and a magnificent
monument erected over her remains.


CASTRO, JUAN DE, a Portuguese soldier, born at Lisbon, distinguished
for his exploits in behalf of Portugal; made viceroy of the Portuguese
Indies, but died soon after in the arms of Francis Xavier (1500-1548).


CASTRO, VACA DE, a Spaniard, sent out by Charles V. as governor of
Peru, but addressing himself to the welfare of the natives rather than
the enrichment of Spain, was recalled, to pine and die in prison in 1558.


CASTROGIOVANNI (18), a town in a strong position in the heart of
Sicily, 3270 ft. above the sea-level; at one time a centre of the worship
of Ceres, and with a temple to her.


CASTRUCCIO-CASTRACANI, Duke of Lucca, and chief of the Ghibelline
party in that town, the greatest war-captain in Europe in his day; lord
of hundreds of strongholds; wore on a high occasion across his breast a
scroll, inscribed, "He is what God made him," and across his back
another, inscribed, "He shall be what God will make"; _d_. 1328, "crushed
before the moth."


CATACOMBS, originally underground quarries, afterwards used as
burial-places for the dead, found beneath Paris and in the neighbourhood
of Rome, as well as elsewhere; those around Rome, some 40 in number, are
the most famous, as having been used by the early Christians, not merely
for burial but for purposes of worship, and are rich In monuments of art
and memorials of history.


CATALANI, ANGELICA, a celebrated Italian singer and prima donna,
born near Ancona; began her career in Rome with such success that it led
to engagements over all the chief cities of Europe, the enthusiasm which
followed her reaching its climax when she came to England, where, on her
first visit, she stayed eight years; by the failure of an enterprise in
Paris she lost her fortune, but soon repaired it by revisiting the
capitals of Europe; died of cholera in Paris (1779-1840).


CATALONIA (1,900), old prov. of Spain, on the NE.; has a most
fertile soil, which yields a luxuriant vegetation; chief seat of
manufacture in the country, called hence the "Lancashire of Spain"; the
people are specially distinguished from other Spaniards for their
intelligence and energy.


CATAMAR`CA (ISO), NW. prov. of the Argentine Republic; rich in
minerals, especially copper.


CATA`NIA (123), an ancient city at the foot of Etna, to the S., on a
plain called the Granary of Sicily; has been several times devastated by
the eruptions of Etna, particularly in 1169, 1669, and 1693; manufactures
silk, linen, and articles of amber, &c., and exports sulphur, grain, and
fruits.


CATANZA`RO (20), a city in Calabria, 6 m. from the Gulf of
Squillace, with an old castle of Robert Guiscard.


CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE, Kant's name for the self-derived moral law,
"universal and binding on every rational will, a commandment of the
autonomous, one and universal reason."


CATEGORIES are either classes under which all our Notions of things
may be grouped, or classes under which all our Thoughts of things may be
grouped; the former called Logical, we owe to Aristotle, and the latter
called Metaphysical, we owe to Kant. The Logical, so derived, that group
our notions, are ten in number: Substance or Being, Quantity, Quality,
Relation, Place, Time, Position, Possession, Action, Passion. The
Metaphysical, so derived, that group our thoughts, are twelve in number:
(1) as regards _quantity_, Totality, Plurality, Unity; (2) as regards
_quality_, Reality, Negation, Limitation; (3) as regards _relation_,
Substance, Accident, Cause and Effect, Action and Reaction; (4) as
regards _modality_, Possibility and Impossibility, Existence and
Nonexistence, Necessity and Contingency. John Stuart Mill resolves the
categories into five, Existence, Co-existence, Succession, Causation, and
Resemblance.


CATESBY, MARK, an English naturalist and traveller, wrote a natural
history of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahamas (1680-1750).


CATESBY, ROBERT, born in Northamptonshire, a Catholic of good birth;
concerned in the famous Gunpowder Plot; shot dead three days after its
discovery by officers sent to arrest him (1573-1605).


CATH`ARI, OR CATHARISTS, i. e. purists or puritans, a sect of
presumably Gnostic derivation, scattered here and there under different
names over the S. and W. of Europe during the Middle Ages, who held the
Manichaean doctrine of the radically sinful nature of the flesh, and the
necessity of mortifying all its desires and affections to attain purity
of soul.


CATHARINE, ST., OF ALEXANDRIA, a virgin who, in 307, suffered
martyrdom after torture on the wheel, which has since borne her name; is
represented in art as in a vision presented to Christ by His Mother as
her sole husband, who gives her a ring. Festival, Nov. 25.


CATHARINE I., wife of Peter the Great and empress of Russia,
daughter of a Livonian peasant; "a little stumpy body, very brown,...
strangely chased about from the bottom to the top of the world,... had
once been a kitchen wench"; married first to a Swedish dragoon, became
afterwards the mistress of Prince Menschikoff, and then of Peter the
Great, who eventually married her; succeeded him as empress, with
Menschikoff as minister; for a time ruled well, but in the end gave
herself up to dissipation, and died (1682-1727).


CATHARINE II. THE GREAT, empress of Russia, born at Stettin,
daughter of Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst; "a most-clever, clear-eyed,
stout-hearted woman"; became the wife of Peter III., a scandalous mortal,
who was dethroned and then murdered, leaving her empress; ruled well for
the country, and though her character was immoral and her reign despotic
and often cruel, her efforts at reform, the patronage she accorded to
literature, science, and philosophy, and her diplomatic successes,
entitle her to a high rank among the sovereigns of Russia; she reigned
from 1763 to 1796, and it was during the course of her reign, and under
the sanction of it, that Europe witnessed the three partitions of Poland
(1729-1796).


CATHARINE DE' MEDICI, daughter of Lorenzo de' Medici, wife of Henry
II. of France, and mother of his three successors; on the accession of
her second son, Charles IX.--for the reign of her first, Francis II., was
very brief--acted as regent during his minority; joined heart and soul
with the Catholics in persecuting the Huguenots, and persuaded her son to
issue the order which resulted in the massacre of St. Bartholomew; on his
death, which occurred soon after, she acted as regent during the minority
of her third son, Henry III., and lived to see both herself and him
detested by the whole French people, and this although she was during her
ascendency the patroness of the arts and of literature (1519-1589).


CATHARINE OF ARAGON, fourth daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of
Spain, and wife of Henry VIII., her brother-in-law as widow of Arthur,
from whom, and at whose instance, after 18 years of married life, and
after giving birth to five children, she was divorced on the plea that,
as she had been his brother's wife before, it was not lawful for him to
have her; after her divorce she remained in the country, led an austere
religious life, and died broken-hearted. The refusal of the Pope to
sanction this divorce led to the final rupture of the English Church from
the Church of Rome, and the emancipation of the nation from priestly
tyranny (1483-1536).


CATHARINE OF BRAGANZA, the wife of Charles II. of England, of the
royal house of Portugal; was unpopular in the country as a Catholic and
neglected by her husband, on whose death, however, she returned to
Portugal, and did the duties ably of regent for her brother Don Pedro
(1638-1705).


CATHARINE OF SIENNA, born at Sienna, a sister of the Order of St.
Dominic, and patron saint of the Order; celebrated for her ecstasies and
visions, and the marks which by favour of Christ she bore on her body of
His sufferings on the Cross (1347-1380). Festival, April 30. Besides her,
are other saints of the same name.


CATHARINE OF VALOIS, daughter of Charles VI. of France, and wife of
Henry V. of England, who, on his marriage to her, was declared heir to
the throne of France, with the result that their son was afterwards,
while but an infant, crowned king of both countries; becoming a widow,
she married Owen Tudor, a Welsh gentleman, whereby a grandson of his
succeeded to the English throne as Henry VII., and the first of the
Tudors (1401-1438).


CATHARINE PARR, the sixth wife of Henry VIII. and the daughter of a
Westmoreland knight; was of the Protestant faith and obnoxious to the
Catholic faction, who trumped up a charge against her of heresy and
treason, from which, however, she cleared herself to the satisfaction of
the king, over whom she retained her ascendency till his death; _d_.
1548.


CATHARINE THEOT, a religious fanatic, born in Avranches; gave
herself out as the Mother of God; appeared in Paris in 1794, and declared
Robespierre a second John the Baptist and forerunner of the Word; the
Committee of Public Safety had her arrested and guillotined.


CATHAY, the name given to China by mediaeval writers, which it still
bears in Central Asia.


CATHCART, EARL, a British general and diplomatist, born in
Renfrewshire; saw service in America and Flanders; distinguished himself
at the bombardment of Copenhagen; represented England at the court of
Russia and the Congress of Vienna (1755-1843).


CATHCART, SIR GEORGE, a lieutenant-general, son of the preceding;
enlisted in the army; served in the later Napoleonic wars; was present at
Quatre-Bras and Waterloo; was governor of the Cape; brought the Kaffir
war to a successful conclusion; served in the Crimea, and fell at
Inkerman (1794-1854).


CATHEDRAL, the principal church in a diocese, and which contains the
throne of the bishop as his seat of authority; is of a rank corresponding
to the dignity of the bishop; the governing body consists of the dean and
chapter.


CATHELINEAU, JACQUES, a famous leader of the Vendeans in their
revolt against the French Republic on account of a conscription in its
behalf; a peasant by birth; mortally wounded in attacking Nantes; he is
remembered by the peasants of La Vendee as the "Saint of Anjou"
(1759-1793).


CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION, the name given to the emancipation in 1829 of
the Roman Catholics of the United Kingdom from disabilities which
precluded their election to office in the State, so that they are
eligible now to any save the Lord Chancellorship of England and offices
representative of royalty.


CATHOLIC EPISTLES, the name, equivalent to encyclical, given to
certain epistles in the New Testament not addressed to any community in
particular, but to several, and given eventually to all not written by
St. Paul.


CATHOLIC MAJESTY, a title given by the Pope to several Spanish
monarchs for their zeal in the defence of the Catholic faith.


CATILINE, or LUCIUS SERGIUS CATILINA, a Roman patrician, an
able man, but unscrupulously ambitious; frustrated in his ambitious
designs, he formed a conspiracy against the State, which was discovered
and exposed by Cicero, a discovery which obliged him to leave the city;
he tried to stir up hostility outside; this too being discovered by
Cicero, an army was sent against him, when an engagement ensued, in
which, fighting desperately, he was slain, 62 B.C.


CATINAT, NICOLAS, a marshal of France, born in Paris; one of the
greatest military captains under Louis XIV.; defeated the Duke of Savoy
twice over, though defeated by Prince Eugene and compelled to retreat;
was an able diplomatist as well as military strategist (1637-1712).


CATLIN, GEORGE, a traveller among the North American Indians, and
author of an illustrated work on their life and manners; spent eight
years among them (1796-1872).


CATO DIONYSIUS, name of a book of maxims in verse, held in high
favour during the Middle Ages; of unknown authorship.


CATO, MARCUS PORTIUS, or CATO MAJOR, surnamed Censor, Priscus,
and Sapiens, born at Tusculum, of a good old family, and trained to
rustic, frugal life; after serving occasionally in the army, removed to
Rome; became in succession censor, aedile, praetor, and consul; served in
the second Punic war, towards the end of it, and subjugated Spain; was a
Roman of the old school; disliked and denounced all innovations, as
censor dealt sharply with them; sent on an embassy to Africa, was so
struck with the increasing power and the threateningly evil ascendency of
Carthage, that on his return he urged its demolition, and in every speech
which he delivered afterwards he ended with the words, _Ceterum censeo
Carthaginem esse delendam_, "But, be that as it may, my opinion is
Carthage must be destroyed" (234-149 B.C.).


CATO, MARCUS PORTIUS, or CATO THE YOUNGER, or UTICENSIS,
great-grandson of the former, and a somewhat pedantic second edition of
him; fortified himself by study of the Stoic philosophy; conceived a
distrust of the public men of the day, Caesar among the number; preferred
Pompey to him, and sided with him; after Pompey's defeat retired to
Utica, whence his surname, and stabbed himself to death rather than fall
into the hands of Caesar (95-46 B.C.).


CATO-STREET CONSPIRACY, an insignificant, abortive plot, headed by
one Thistlewood, to assassinate Castlereagh and other ministers of the
crown in 1820; so called from their place of meeting off the Edgeware
Road, London.


CATRAIL, an old Roman earthwork, 50 m. long, passing S. from near
Galashiels, through Selkirk and Roxburgh, or from the Cheviots; it is
known by the name of the "Devil's Dyke."


CATS, JACOB, a Dutch poet and statesman, venerated in Holland as
"Father Cats"; his works are written in a simple, natural style, and
abound in wise maxims; he did service as a statesman; twice visited
England as an envoy, and was knighted by Charles I. (1577-1660).


CATSKILL MOUNTAINS, a group of mountains, of steep ascent, and with
rocky summits, in New York State, W. of the Hudson, none of them
exceeding 4000 feet; celebrated as the scene of Rip Van Winkle's long
slumber; belong to the Appalachians.


CATTEGAT, an arm of the sea, 150 m. in length and 84 of greatest
width, between Sweden and Jutland; a highway into the Baltic, all but
blocked up with islands; is dangerous to shipping on account of the
storms that infest it at times.


CATTERMOLE, GEORGE, artist, born in Norfolk; illustrated Britton's
"English Cathedrals," "Waverley Novels," and the "Historical Annual" by
his brother; painted mostly in water-colour; his subjects chiefly from
English history (1800-1868).


CATTLE PLAGUE, or RINDERPEST, a disease which affects
ruminants, but especially bovine cattle; indigenous to the East, Russia,
Persia, India, and China, and imported into Britain only by contagion of
some kind; the most serious outbreaks were in 1865 and 1872.


CATULLUS, CAIUS VALERIUS, the great Latin lyric poet, born at
Verona, a man of wealth and good standing, being, it would seem, of the
equestrian order; associated with the best wits in Rome; fell in love
with Clodia, a patrician lady, who was the inspiration, both in peace and
war, of many of his effusions, and whom he addresses as Lesbia; the death
of a brother affected him deeply, and was the occasion of the production
of one of the most pathetic elegies ever penned; in the civic strife of
the time he sided with the senate, and opposed Caesar to the length of
directing against him a coarse lampoon (84-54 B.C.).


CAUCA, a river in Colombia, S. America, which falls into the
Magdalena after a northward course of 600 m.


CAUCASIA, a prov. of Russia, geographically divided into
Cis-Caucasia on the European side, and Trans-Caucasia on the Asiatic side
of the Caucasus, with an area about four times as large as England.


CAUCASIAN RACE, a name adopted by Blumenbach to denote the
Indo-European race, from the fine type of a skull of one of the race
found in Georgia.


CAUCASUS, an enormous mountain range, 750 m. in length, extending
from the Black Sea ESE. to the Caspian, in two parallel chains, with
tablelands between, bounded on the S. by the valley of the Kur, which
separates it from the tableland of Armenia; snow-line higher than that of
the Alps; has fewer and smaller glaciers; has no active volcanoes, though
abundant evidence of volcanic action.


CAUCHON, bishop of Beauvais, infamous for the iniquitous part he
played in the trial and condemnation of Joan of Arc; _d_. 1443.


CAUCHY, AUGUSTIN LOUIS, mathematician, born in Paris; wrote largely
on physical subjects; his "Memoir" on the theory of the waves suggested
the undulatory theory of light; professor of Astronomy at Paris; declined
to take the oath of allegiance to Napoleon III., and retired (1789-1857).


CAUCUS, a preliminary private meeting to arrange and agree on some
measure or course to propose at a general meeting of a political party.


CAUDINE FORKS, a narrow mountain gorge in Samnium, in which, during
the second Samnite war, a Roman army was entrapped and caught by the
Samnites, who obliged them to pass under the yoke in token of
subjugation, 321 B.C.


CAUDLE, MRS., an imaginary dame, a conception of Douglas Jerrold,
famous for her "Curtain Lectures" all through the night for 30 years to
her husband Mr. Job Caudle.


CAUL, a membrane covering the head of some children at birth, to
which a magical virtue was at one time ascribed, and which, on that
account, was rated high and sold often at a high price.


CAULAINCOURT, ARMAND DE, a French general and statesman of the
Empire, a faithful supporter of Napoleon, who conferred on him a peerage,
with the title of Duke of Vicenza, of which he was deprived at the
Restoration; represented Napoleon at the Congress of Chatillon
(1772-1827).


CAUS, SALOMON DE, a French engineer, born at Dieppe; discovered the
properties of steam as a motive force towards 1638; claimed by Arago as
the inventor of the steam-engine in consequence.


CAUSALITY, the philosophic name for the nature of the relation
between cause and effect, in regard to which there has been much
diversity of opinion among philosophers.


CAUTERETS, a fashionable watering-place in the dep. of the
Hautes-Pyrenees, 3250 ft. above the sea, with sulphurous springs of very
ancient repute, 25 in number, and of varying temperature.


CAVAIGNAC, LOUIS EUGENE, a distinguished French general, born in
Paris; appointed governor of Algeria in 1849, but recalled to be head of
the executive power in Paris same year; appointed dictator, suppressed
the insurrection in June, after the most obstinate and bloody struggle
the streets of Paris had witnessed since the first Revolution; stood
candidate for the Presidency, to which Louis Napoleon was elected; was
arrested after the _coup d'etat_, but soon released; never gave in his
adherence to the Empire (1802-1857).


CAVALCASELLE, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, Italian writer on art; joint-author
with J. A. Crowe of works on the "Early Flemish Painters" and the
"History of Painting in Italy"; chief of the art department under the
Minister of Public Instruction in Rome; _b_. 1820.


CAVALIER, JEAN, leader of the CAMISARDS (q. v.), born at
Ribaute, in the dep. of Gard; bred a baker; held his own against
Montreval and Villars; in 1704 concluded peace with the latter on
honourable terms; haughtily received by Louis XIV., passed over to
England; served against France, and died governor of Jersey (1679-1740).


CAVALIERS, the royalist partisans of Charles I. in England in
opposition to the parliamentary party, or the Roundheads, as they were
called.


CAVALLO, a distinguished Italian physicist, born at Naples
(1749-1809).


CAVAN (111), inland county S. of Ulster, Ireland, with a poor soil;
has minerals and mineral springs.


CAVE, EDWARD, a London bookseller, born in Warwickshire; projected
the Gentleman's Magazine, to which Dr. Johnson contributed; was the first
to give Johnson literary work, employing him as parliamentary reporter,
and Johnson was much attached to him; he died with his hand in Johnson's
(1691-1754).


CAVE, WILLIAM, an English divine; author of works on the Fathers of
the Church and on primitive Christianity, of high repute at one time
(1637-1713).


CAVENDISH, the surname of the Devonshire ducal family, traceable
back to the 14th century.


CAVENDISH, GEORGE, the biographer of Wolsey; never left him while he
lived, and never forgot him or the lesson of his life after he was dead;
this appears from the vivid picture he gives of him, though written 30
years after his death (1500-1561).


CAVENDISH, LORD FREDERICK, brother of the ninth Duke of Devonshire,
educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and a Liberal; was made
Chief-Secretary for Ireland in 1882, but chancing to walk home one
evening through the Phoenix Park, he fell a victim, stabbed to the heart,
of a conspiracy that was aimed at Mr. Burke, an unpopular subordinate,
who was walking along with him, and came to the same fate. Eight months
after, 20 men were arrested as concerned in the murder, when one of the
20 informed; five of them were hanged; the informer Carey was afterwards
murdered, and his murderer, O'Donnel, hanged (1836-1882).


CAVENDISH, HENRY, natural philosopher and chemist, born at Nice, of
the Devonshire family; devoted his entire life to scientific
investigations; the first to analyse the air of the atmosphere, determine
the mean density of the earth, discover the composition of water, and
ascertain the properties of hydrogen; was an extremely shy, retiring man;
born rich and died rich, leaving over a million sterling (1731-1810).


CAVENDISH, SPENCER COMPTON, ninth Duke of Devonshire, for long known
in public life as Marquis of Hartington; also educated at Trinity
College, and a leader of the Liberal party; served under Gladstone till
he adopted Home Rule for Ireland, but joined Lord Salisbury in the
interest of Union, and one of the leaders of what is called the
Liberal-Unionist party; _b_. 1833.


CAVENDISH, THOMAS, an English navigator, fitted out three vessels to
cruise against the Spaniards; extended his cruise into the Pacific;
succeeded in taking valuable prizes, with which he landed in England,
after circumnavigating the globe; he set out on a second cruise, which
ended in disaster, and he died in the island of Ascension broken-hearted
(1555-1592).


CAVENDISH, WILLIAM, English courtier and cavalier in the reigns of
James I. and Charles I.; joined Charles II. in exile; returned at the
Restoration; was made Duke of Newcastle; wrote on horsemanship
(1592-1676).


CAVENDISH, WILLIAM, first Duke of Devonshire; friend and protector
of Lord William Russell; became a great favourite at court, and was
raised to the dukedom (1640-1707).


CAVIARE, the roe (the immature ovaries) of the common sturgeon and
other kindred fishes, caught chiefly in the Black and Caspian Seas, and
prepared and salted; deemed a great luxury by those who have acquired the
taste for it; largely imported from Astrakhan.


CAVOUR, COUNT CAMILLO BENSO DE, one of the greatest of modern
statesmen, born the younger son of a Piedmontese family at Turin; entered
the army, but was precluded from a military career by his liberal
opinions; retired, and for 16 years laboured as a private gentleman to
improve the social and economic condition of Piedmont; in 1847 he threw
himself into the great movement which resulted in the independence and
unification of Italy; for the next 14 years, as editor of _Il
Risorgimento_, member of the chamber of deputies, holder of various
portfolios in the government, and ultimately as prime minister of the
kingdom of Sardinia, he obtained a constitution and representative
government for his country, improved its fiscal and financial condition,
and raised it to a place of influence in Europe; he co-operated with the
allies in the Crimean war; negotiated with Napoleon III. for the
expulsion of the Austrians from Italy, and so precipitated the successful
war of 1859; he encouraged Garibaldi in the expedition of 1860, which
liberated Sicily and Southern Italy, and saw the parliament of 1861
summoned, and Victor Emmanuel declared king of Italy; but the strain of
his labours broke his health, and he died a few months later (1810-1861).


CAWNPORE (188), a city on the right bank of the Ganges, in the
North-Western Provinces of India, 40 m. SW. of Lucknow, and 628 NW. of
Calcutta; the scene of one of the most fearful atrocities, perpetrated by
Nana Sahib, in the Indian Mutiny in 1857.


CAXTON, WILLIAM, the first English printer, born in Kent, bred a
mercer, settled for a time in Bruges, learned the art of printing there,
where he printed a translation of the "Recuyell of the Historyes of
Troyes," and "The Game and Playe of Chesse"; returning to England, set up
a press in Westminster Abbey, and in 1477 issued "Dictes and Sayings of
the Philosophers," the first book printed in England, which was soon
followed by many others; he was a good linguist, as well as a devoted
workman (1422-1491).


CAYENNE (10), cap. and port of French Guiana, a swampy, unhealthy
place, rank with tropical vegetation; a French penal settlement since
1852.


CAYLA, COUNTESS OF, friend and confidante of Louis XVIII.
(1784-1850).


CAYLEY, ARTHUR, an eminent English mathematician, professor at
Cambridge, and president of the British Association in 1883 (1821-1895).


CAYLEY, CHARLES BAGOT, a linguist, translated Dante into the metre
of the original, with annotations, besides metrical versions of the
"Iliad," the "Prometheus" of AEschylus, the "Canzoniere" of Petrarch, &c.
(1823-1883).


CAYLUS, COUNT, a distinguished archaeologist, born in Paris; author
of a "Collection of Antiquities of Egypt, Etruria," &c., with excellent
engravings (1692-1765).


CAYLUS, MARQUISE DE, born in Poitou, related to Mme. de Maintenon;
left piquant souvenirs of the court of Louis XIV. and the house of St.
Cyr (1672-1729).


CAZALES, a member of French Constituent Assembly, a dragoon captain,
a fervid, eloquent orator of royalism, who "earned thereby," says
Carlyle, "the shadow of a name" (1758-1805).


CAZOTTE, author of the "Diable Amoureux"; victim as an enemy of the
French Revolution; spared for his daughter's sake for a time, but
guillotined at last; left her a "lock of his old grey hair" (1720-1792).


CEAN-BERMUDEZ, a Spanish writer on art; author of a biographical
dictionary of the principal artists of Spain (1749-1834).


CEARA (35), cap. of the prov. (900) of the name, in N. of Brazil.


CE`BES, a Greek philosopher, disciple and friend of Socrates,
reputed author of the "Pinax" or Tablet, a once popular book on the
secret of life, being an allegorical representation of the temptations
that beset it.


CECIL, ROBERT, EARL OF SALISBURY, succeeded his father, Lord
Burleigh, as first Minister under Elizabeth, and continued in office
under James I., whose friendship he sedulously cultivated before his
accession, and who created him earl (1565-1612). See BURLEIGH,
LORD.


CECILIA, ST., a Roman virgin and martyr, A.D. 230, patron saint of
music, especially church music, and reputed inventor of the organ;
sometimes represented as holding a small organ, with her head turned
heavenwards as if listening to the music of the spheres, and sometimes as
playing on an organ and with a heavenly expression of face. Festival,
Nov. 22.


CECROPS, the mythical first king and civiliser of Attica and founder
of Athens with its citadel, dedicated by him to Athena, whence the name
of the city.


CEDAR RAPIDS (25), a manufacturing town in Iowa, U.S.; a great
railway centre.


CELADON, poetical name for a languid swain, all sighs and longings.


CELAENO, name of one of the HARPIES (q. v.).


CELEBES (1,000), an island in the centre of the Eastern Archipelago,
third in size, in the shape of a body with four long limbs, traversed by
mountain chains, and the greater part of it a Dutch possession, though it
contains a number of small native states; it yields among its mineral
products gold, copper, tin, &c.; and among its vegetable, tea, coffee,
rice, sugar, pepper, &c.; capital. Macassar.


CELESTE, MME., a dancer, born in Paris; made her _debut_ in New
York; in great repute in England, and particularly in the States, where
she in her second visit realised L40,000 (1814-1882).


CELESTIAL EMPIRE, China, as ruled over by a dynasty appointed by
Heaven.


CELESTINE, the name of five Popes: C. I., Pope from 422 to 432; C.
II., Pope from 1143 to 1144; C. III., Pope from 1191 to 1198; C. IV.,
Pope for 18 days in 1241; C. V., Pope in 1294, a hermit for 60 years;
nearly 80 when elected against his wish; abdicated in five months;
imprisoned by order of Boniface VIII.; _d_. 1296; canonised 1313.


CELESTINES, an order of monks founded by Celestine V. before he was
elected Pope in 1354; they followed the rule of the Benedictine Order,
and led a contemplative life.


CELLINI, BENVENUTO, a celebrated engraver, sculptor, and goldsmith,
a most versatile and erratic genius, born at Florence; had to leave
Florence for a bloody fray he was involved in, and went to Rome; wrought
as a goldsmith there for 20 years, patronised by the nobles; killed the
Constable de Bourbon at the sack of the city, and for this received
plenary indulgence from the Pope; Francis I. attracted him to his court
and kept him in his service five years, after which he returned to
Florence and executed his famous bronze "Perseus with the Head of
Medusa," which occupied him four years; was a man of a quarrelsome
temper, which involved him in no end of scrapes with sword as well as
tongue; left an autobiography, from its self-dissection of the deepest
interest to all students of human nature (1500-1571).


CELSIUS, a distinguished Swedish astronomer, born at Upsala, and
professor of Astronomy there; inventor of the Centigrade thermometer
(1701-1744).


CELSUS, a celebrated Roman physician of the age of Augustus, and
perhaps later; famed as the author of "De Medicina," a work often
referred to, and valuable as one of the sources of our knowledge of the
medicine of the ancients.


CELSUS, a philosopher of the 2nd century, and notable as the first
assailant on philosophic grounds of the Christian religion, particularly
as regards the power it claims to deliver from the evil that is inherent
in human nature, inseparable from it, and implanted in it not by God, but
some inferior being remote from Him; the book in which he attacked
Christianity is no longer extant, only quotations from it scattered over
the pages of the defence of Origen in reply.


CELTIBE`RI, an ancient Spanish race occupying the centre of the
peninsula, sprung from a blending of the aborigines and the Celts, who
invaded the country; a brave race, divided into four tribes;
distinguished in war both as cavalry and infantry, and whom the Romans
had much trouble in subduing.


CELTS. The W. of Europe was in prehistoric times subjected to two
invasions of Aryan tribes, all of whom are now referred to as Celts. The
earlier invaders were Goidels or Gaels; they conquered the Ivernian and
Iberian peoples of ancient Gaul, Britain, and Ireland; their successors,
the Brythons or Britons pouring from the E., drove them to the
westernmost borders of these countries, and there compelled them to make
common cause with the surviving Iberians in resistance; in the eastern
parts of the conquered territories they formed the bulk of the
population, in the W. they were in a dominant minority; study of
languages in the British Isles leads to the conclusion that the Irish,
Manx, and Scottish Celts belonged chiefly to the earlier immigration,
while the Welsh and Cornish represent the latter; the true Celtic type is
tall, red or fair, and blue-eyed, while the short, swarthy type, so long
considered Celtic, is now held to represent the original Iberian races.


CENCI, THE, a Roman family celebrated for their crimes and
misfortunes as well as their wealth. FRANCESCO CENCI was twice
married, had had twelve children by his first wife, whom he treated
cruelly; after his second marriage cruelly treated the children of his
first wife, but conceived a criminal passion for the youngest of them, a
beautiful girl named BEATRICE, whom he outraged, upon which, being
unable to bring him to justice, she, along with her stepmother and a
brother, hired two assassins to murder him; the crime was found out, and
all three were beheaded (1599); this is the story on which Shelley
founded his tragedy, but it is now discredited.


CENIS, MONT, one of the Cottian Alps, over which Napoleon
constructed a pass 6884 ft. high in 1802-10, through which a tunnel 71/2 m.
long passes from Modane to Bardonneche, connecting France with Italy; the
construction of this tunnel cost L3,000,000, and Napoleon's pass a tenth
of the sum.


CENSORS, two magistrates of ancient Rome, who held office at first
for five years and then eighteen months, whose duty it was to keep a
register of the citizens, guard the public morals, collect the public
revenue, and superintend the public property.


CEN`TAURS, a savage race living between Pelion and Ossa, in
Thessaly, and conceived of at length by Pindar as half men and half
horses, treated as embodying the relation between the spiritual and the
animal in man and nature, in all of whom the animal prevails over the
spiritual except in Chiron, who therefore figures as the trainer of the
heroes of Greece; in the mythology they figure as the progeny of
Centaurus, son of IXION (q. v.) and the cloud, their mothers
being mares.


CENTRAL AMERICA (3,000), territory of fertile tableland sloping
gradually to both oceans, occupied chiefly by a number of small
republics, lying between Tehuantepec and Panama in N. America; it
includes the republics of Guatemala, Honduras, St. Salvador, Nicaragua,
and Costa Rica, and a few adjoining fractions of territory.


CENTRAL INDIA (10,000), includes a group of feudatory States lying
between Rajputana in the N. and Central Provinces in the S.


CENTRAL PROVINCES (12,944), States partly British and partly native,
occupying the N. of the Deccan, and lying between the Nerbudda and the
Godavary.


CEOS, one of the Cyclades, a small island 13 m. by 8 m., yields
fruits; was the birthplace of Simonides and Bacchylides.


CEPHALONIA (80), the largest of the Ionian Islands, 30 m. long, the
ancient Samos; yields grapes and olive oil.


CEPHALUS, king of Thessaly, who having involuntarily killed his wife
Procris, in despair put himself to death with the same weapon.


CERAM` (195), the largest of S. Moluccas; yields sago, which is
chiefly cultivated and largely exported.


CERBERUS, the three-headed or three-throated monster that guarded
the entrance to the nether world of Pluto, could be soothed by music, and
tempted by honey, only Hercules overcame him by sheer strength, dragging
him by neck and crop to the upper world.


CERES, the Latin name for DEMETER (q. v.); also the name of
one of the asteroids, the first discovered, by Piazzi, in 1801.


CERI`GO (14), an Ionian island, the southernmost, the ancient
Cythera; yields wine and fruits.


CERINTHUS, a heresiarch of the first century, whom, according to
tradition, St. John held in special detestation, presumably as denying
the Father and the Son.


CERRO DE PASCO, a town in Peru, 14,200 ft. above the sea-level, with
the richest silver mine in S. America.


CERUTTI, a Jesuit, born at Turin; became a Revolutionary in France;
pronounced the funeral oration at the grave of Mirabeau in 1789.


CERVANTES-SAAVEDRA, MIGUEL DE, the author of "Don Quixote," born at
Alcala de Henares; was distinguished in arms before he became
distinguished in letters; fought in the battle of Lepanto like a very
hero, and bore away with him as a "maimed soldier" marks of his share in
the struggle; sent on a risky embassy, was captured by pirates and
remained in their hands five years; was ransomed by his family at a cost
which beggared them, and it was only when his career as a soldier closed
that he took himself to literature; began as a dramatist before he
devoted himself to prose romance; wrote no fewer than 30 dramas; the
first part of the work which has immortalised his name appeared in 1605,
and the second in 1615; it took the world by storm, was translated into
all the languages of Europe, but the fortune which was extended to his
book did not extend to himself, for he died poor, some ten days before
his great contemporary, William Shakespeare; though carelessly written,
"Don Quixote" is one of the few books of all time, and is as fresh to-day
as when it was first written (1547-1616).


CERVIN, MONT, the French name for the Matterhorn, 705 ft., the
summit of the Pennine Alps, between Valais and Piedmont.


CESAREWITCH, the eldest son and heir of the Czar of Russia.


CE`SARI, GIUSEPPE, sometimes called ARPINO, an eminent Italian
painter; painted a series of frescoes in the Conservatorio of the
Capitol, illustrative of events in the history of Rome (1568-1640).


CESAROTTI, an Italian poet, translator of the "Iliad" and "Ossian"
into Italian (1730-1808).


CESTUS, a girdle worn by Greek and Roman women, specially the girdle
of Aphrodite, so emblazoned with symbols of the joys of love that no
susceptible soul could resist the power of it; it was borrowed by Hera to
captivate Zeus.


CETINJE, the capital of Montenegro, in a valley 2000 ft. high;
smallest of capital cities, with a population under 2000.


CETTE (36), a seaport, trading, and manufacturing town, on a tongue
of land between the lagoon of Thau and the Mediterranean, 23 m. SW. of
Montpellier, with a large safe harbourage.


CE`UTA (12), a port opposite Gibraltar belonging to Spain, on the
coast of Morocco, guarded by a fort on one of the Pillars of Hercules,
overlooking it; of importance as a military and convict station.


CEVENNES, a range of low mountains on the eastern edge of the
central plateau of France, separating the basin of the Rhone from those
of the Loire and Garonne; average height from 3000 to 4000 ft.; the chief
scene of the dragonnades against the Huguenots under Louis XIV.


CEYLON (3,008), a pear-shaped island about the size of Scotland,
separated from India, to which it geographically belongs, and SE. of
which it lies, by Palk Strait, 32 m. broad; comprises a lofty, central
tableland with numerous peaks, the highest Tallagalla, 8000 ft., and a
broad border of well-watered plains. It was an ancient centre of
civilisation; the soil is everywhere fertile; the climate is hot, but
more equitable than on the mainland; the chief products are tea,
cinnamon, and tobacco; the forests yield satin-wood, ebony, &c.; the
cocoa-nut palm abounds; there are extensive deposits of iron, anthracite,
and plumbago; precious stones, sapphires, rubies, amethysts, &c., are in
considerable quantities; the pearl fisheries are a valuable government
monopoly. The chief exports are tea, rice, cotton goods, and coals.
Two-thirds of the people are Singhalese and Buddhists, there are 6000
Europeans. The island is a crown colony, the largest in the British
Empire, administered by a governor with executive and legislative
councils; the capital and chief port is Colombo (127).


CHABAS, FRANCOIS, a French Egyptologist, born in Briancon; his works
have contributed much to elucidate the history of the invasion and
repulsion of the Hyksos in Egypt (1817-1882).


CHABOT, a member of the National Convention of France, a "disfrocked
Capuchin," adjured "Heaven," amid enthusiasm, "that at least they may
have done with kings"; guillotined (1759-1794).


CHACKTAW INDIANS. See CHOCKTAW.


CHAD, LAKE, a shallow lake in the Sahara, of varied extent,
according as the season is dry or rainy, at its largest covering an area
as large as England, and abounding in hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, &c.,
as well as waterfowl and fish.


CHADBAND, REV. MR., a character in "Bleak House."


CHADWICK, SIR EDWIN, an English social reformer, born in Manchester,
associated with measures bearing upon sanitation and the improvement of
the poor-laws, and connected with the administration of them (1801-1890).


CHAERONEA, a town in Boeotia, where Philip of Macedon defeated the
Athenians, and extinguished the liberties of Greece.


CHALAIS, COUNT DE, a favourite of Louis XIII., accused of conspiracy
against Richelieu, arrested at Nantes, and beheaded (1599-1626).


CHALAZA, one of the two filaments attached to the ends of the yoke
of an egg to steady it in the albumen.


CHALCEDON, a city of Bithynia, at the entrance of the Thracian
Bosphorus, where the fourth Council of the Church was held in 451, which
defined the orthodox conception of Christ as God-man.


CHALCIDICE, the 3-fingered peninsula of the Balkan territory
stretching into the AEgean Sea.


CHALCIS, the ancient capital of Euboea or Negropont.


CHALDEA, ancient name for Babylonia.


CHALIER, a Piedmontese, head of the party of the Mountain at Lyons;
his execution the signal for an insurrection at Lyons against the
Convention (1747-1793).


CHALLENGER EXPEDITION, a scientific expedition sent out by the
British Government in the _Challenger_ in 1872 in the interest of
science, and under the management of scientific experts, to various
stations over the globe, to explore the ocean, and ascertain all manner
of facts regarding it open to observation, an expedition which concluded
its operations in 1876, of which as many as 50 volumes of reports have
been compiled.


CHALLIS, JAMES, an astronomer, born in Essex, noted the position of
the planet Neptune before its actual discovery (1803-1882).


CHALLONER, RICHARD, a Roman Catholic bishop, born at Lewes; a
zealous Catholic, author of "Garden of the Soul," a popular devotional
book, as well as several controversial books (1691-1781).


CHALMERS, ALEXANDER, a miscellaneous writer, born at Aberdeen;
settled in London; edited the "British Essayists" in 45 vols., and author
of "A General Biographical Dictionary."


CHALMERS, GEORGE, an English publicist, born at Fochabers, author of
"An Account, Historical and Topographical, of North Britain" (1742-1825).


CHALMERS, THOMAS, a celebrated Scotch ecclesiastic and pulpit
orator, born at Anstruther, Fife; studied for the Church, and entered the
ministry; after he did so was for some years more engrossed with physical
studies and material interests than spiritual, but he by-and-by woke up
to see and feel that the spiritual interest was the sovereign one, and to
the promotion of that he henceforth devoted himself body and soul; it was
for the sake of the spiritual he took the interest he did in the
ecclesiastical affairs of the nation, and that the Church might have
scope and freedom to discharge its spiritual functions was one chief
ruling passion of his life, and it is no wonder he bent all his energies
on a movement in the Church to secure this object; he was not much of a
scholar or even a theologian, but a great man, and a great force in the
religious life of his country; though the first pulpit-orator of his day,
and though he wrote largely, as well as eloquently, he left no writings
worthy of him except the "Astronomical Discourses" perhaps, to perpetuate
his memory; he was distinguished for his practical sagacity, and was an
expert at organisation; in his old age he was a most benignant,
venerable-looking man: "It is a long time," wrote Carlyle to his mother,
just after a visit he had paid him a few days before he died--"it is a
long time since I have spoken to so _good_ and really pious-hearted and
beautiful old man" (1780-1847).


CHALONS-SUR-MARNE (25), capital of the French dep. of Marne, 100 m.
E. of Paris, where Attila was defeated by the Romans and Goths in 451;
Napoleon III. formed a camp near it for the training of troops.


CHALONS-SUR-SAONE (24), a trading centre some 80 m. N. of Lyons;
manufactures machinery, glass, paper, and chemicals.


CHAINS, chief town of the French dep. of Haute Vienne, where Richard
Coeur de Lion was mortally wounded in 1199 by a shot with an arrow.


CHAM, the pseudonym of the French caricaturist Amedee de Noe, famous
for his humorous delineations of Parisian life (1819-1884).


CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, an association of merchants to promote and
protect the interests of trade, particularly of the town or the district
to which they belong.


CHAMBER OF DEPUTIES, a French legislative assembly, elected now by
universal suffrage.


CHAMBERLAIN, RIGHT HON. JOSEPH, born in London, connected as a
business man with Birmingham; after serving the latter city in a
municipal capacity, was elected the parliamentary representative in 1876;
became President of the Board of Trade under Mr. Gladstone in 1880, and
chief promoter of the Bankruptcy Bill; broke with Mr. Gladstone on his
Home Rule measure for Ireland, and joined the Liberal-Unionists;
distinguished himself under Lord Salisbury as Colonial Secretary; _b_.
1836.


CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM, an English writer, born in Kendal, author of a
cyclopaedia which bears his name, and which formed the basis of subsequent
ones, as Johnson confessed it did of his Dictionary (1680-1750).


CHAMBERS, GEORGE, an English marine painter, born at Whitby; _d_.
1840.


CHAMBERS, ROBERT, brother of the succeeding and in the same line of
life, but of superior accomplishments, especially literary and
scientific, which served him well in editing the publications issued by
the firm; was the author of a great many works of a historical,
biographical, and scientific, as well as literary interest; wrote the
"Vestiges of Creation," a book on evolutionary lines, which made no small
stir at the time of publication, 1844, and for a time afterwards, the
authorship of which he was slow to own (1802-1871).


CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM, born at Peebles; apprenticed to a bookseller
in Edinburgh, and commenced business on his own account in a small way;
edited with his brother the "Gazetteer of Scotland"; started, in 1832,
_Chambers's Edinburgh Journal_ to meet a demand of the time for popular
instruction in company with his brother founded a great printing and
publishing establishment, from which there has issued a number of
valuable works in the interest especially of the propagation of useful
knowledge of all kinds; was a distinguished Edinburgh citizen, and did
much for the expansion and improvement of the city (1800-1883)


CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM, architect, born at Stockholm, of Scotch
origin; architect of Somerset House; was of the Johnson circle of wits
(1726-1796)


CHAMBERY (19), chief town of dep. of Savoy, in a beautiful district;
is the ancient capital, and contains the castle, of the dukes of Savoy;
manufactures cloth, wines, soap, and textile fabrics; is also a summer
resort.


CHAMBEZE, a head-stream of the Congo, N. of lake Nyassa.


CHAMBORD, spacious chateau in the dep. of Loire-et-Cher, France,
built by Francis I.; after being long a residence for royalty and people
of distinction, was presented in 1821 to the Duc de Bordeaux, the Comte
de Chambord.


CHAMBORD, COMTE DE, Duc de Bordeaux, son of the Duc de Berri and
grandson of Charles X., born at Paris; exiled in 1830, he retired to the
chateau of Frohsdorf, in Austria, where he died without issue; his father
and grandfather being dead, the monarchical party resolved to attempt a
restoration in his behalf in 1872, but he refused to adopt the tricolor
flag of the Revolution, and the scheme was abandoned, a like opportunity
offering itself twice before being let slip (1820-1883).


CHAMBRE ARDENTE, a name given to certain courts of justice
established to try certain cases that required to be sharply dealt with;
they were held at night, and even when held in the daytime with lighted
torches; a court of the kind was instituted for trial of the Huguenots in
1530, and again in 1680 and 1716.


CHAMFORT, a French wit and litterateur, born in Auvergne; took to
the Revolution, but offended the leaders, and being threatened with
arrest committed suicide, "cutting and slashing with frantic, uncertain
hand, gaining, not without difficulty, the refuge of death"; he was a
born cynic, and was famous for his keen insight into human nature and his
sharp criticisms of it, summed up in a collection of maxims he left, as
well as for his anecdotes in incisive portraiture of character. "He was a
man," says Professor Saintsbury, "soured by his want of birth, health,
and position, and spoilt by hanging on to the great persons of his time.
But for a kind of tragi-comic satire, a _soeva indignatio_, taking the
form of contempt for all that is exalted and noble, he has no equal in
literature except Swift" (1741-1794).


CHAMILLARD, Minister of Finance and of War under Louis XIV.;
"distinguished himself by his incapacity" (1651-1721).


CHAMISSO, ADALBERT VON, a German naturalist and litterateur born in
France, but educated in Berlin; is famous for his poetical productions,
but especially as the author of "Peter Schlemihl," the man who lost his
shadow, which has been translated into nearly every European language; he
wrote several works on natural history (1781-1838).


CHAMOUNI, OR CHAMONIX, a village in the dep. of Haute-Savoie, 33 m.
SE. of Geneva, in a valley forming the upper basin of the Arve, famous
for its beauty and for its glaciers; it is from this point that the
ascent of Mont Blanc is usually made.


CHAMOUSSET, a French philanthropist, born in Paris; the originator
of mutual benefit societies (1717-1773).


CHAMPAGNE, an ancient province of France, 180 m. long by 150 broad,
annexed to the Crown 1286, and including the deps. of Aube, Haute-Marne,
Marne, and Ardennes; the province where the wine of the name is
principally manufactured.


CHAMP-DE-MARS, a large space, of ground in Paris, between the front
of the Ecole Militaire and the left bank of the Seine; the site of recent
Expositions, and the scene of the Federation Fete, 14th July 1790.


CHAMPLAIN`, a beautiful lake between the States of New York and
Vermont; it is 100 m. in length, and from 1 m. at its S. end to 14 m. at
its N. end broad.


CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE, a French navigator, born at Brouage, in
Saintonge, was founder of Quebec, and French Governor of Canada; wrote an
account of his voyages (1570-1635).


CHAMPOLLION, JEAN FRANCOIS, a celebrated French Egyptologist, born
in Figeac, dep. of Lot; early gave himself to the study of Coptic and
Egyptian antiquities; was the first to decipher the hieroglyphics of
ancient Egypt, a great discovery; conducted a scientific expedition to
Egypt in 1828, and returned in 1830 with the fruits of his researches; a
chair of Egyptology was in consequence instituted in the College of
France, and he was installed as the first professor; his writings on the
science, of which he laid the foundation, are numerous (1790-1832).


CHAMPS-ELYSEES, a Parisian promenade between the Place de la
Concorde and the Arc de Triomphe.


CHANCELLOR, RICHARD, an English seaman, voyaging in northern parts,
arrived in the White Sea, and travelled to Moscow, where he concluded a
commercial treaty with Russia on behalf of an English company; wrote an
interesting account of his visit; after a second visit, in which he
visited Moscow, was wrecked on the coast of Aberdeenshire in 1556.


CHANDERNAGORE (25), a small town and territory on the Hooghly, 22 m.
N. of Calcutta, belonging to France.


CHANDLER, RICHARD, a learned Hellenistic archaeologist, born in
Hants; travelled in Asia Minor and Greece, along with two artists, to
examine and describe the antiquities; the materials collected were
published in his "Ionian Antiquities," "Travels in Asia Minor," &c.
(1738-1810).


CHANDOS, an English title inherited by the Grenville family, of
Norman origin.


CHANDOS, JOHN, a celebrated English general in the 14th century; was
present at Crecy, governor of English provinces in France ceded by treaty
of Bretigny; defeated and took prisoner Du Guesclin of Auray; served
under the Black Prince, and was killed near Poitiers, 1369.


CHANGARNIER, NICOLAS, French general, born at Autun; distinguished
himself in Algeria, was exiled after the _coup-d'etat_, returned in 1870,
served in the Franco-German war; surrendered at Metz, at the close of the
war came back, and assisted in reorganising the army (1793-1877).


CHANNEL, THE ENGLISH, an arm of the Atlantic between France and
England, 280 m. long and 100 m. wide at the mouth; the French call it _La
Manche_ (the sleeve) from its shape.


CHANNEL ISLANDS (92), a group of small islands off the NW. coast of
France, of which the largest are Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, and Sark;
formerly part of the Duchy of Normandy, and now all that remains to
Britain of her French dominions, being subject to it since 1066; have a
delightful climate mild and bright, and varied and beautiful scenery;
the soil is fertile; flowers and fruit are grown for export to Britain,
also early potatoes for the London market; Guernsey pears and Jersey cows
are famous; valuable quarries of granite are wrought; the language is
Norman-French.


CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERY, a Unitarian preacher and miscellaneous
writer, born at Newport, Rhode Island, U.S.; a man of the most liberal
sentiments, who shrank from being classed with any sect; ranked high in
point of moral character; was a vigorous thinker, and eloquent with the
pen; "a man of faithful, long-continued striving towards what is Best"
(1780-1842).


CHANSON DE GESTES (i. e. Songs of Deeds), poems of a narrative
kind much in favour in the Middle Ages, relating in a legendary style the
history and exploits of some famous hero, such as the "Chanson de
Roland," ascribed to Theroulde, a trouvere of the 9th century.


CHANTREY, SIR FRANCIS, an English sculptor, born in Derbyshire; was
apprenticed to a carver and gilder in Sheffield; displayed a talent for
drawing and modelling; received a commission to execute a marble bust for
the parish, church, which was so successful as to procure him further and
further commissions; executed four colossal busts of admirals for
Greenwich Hospital; being expert at portraiture, his busts were
likenesses; executed busts of many of the most illustrious men of the
time, among them of Sir Walter Scott, Wordsworth, Southey, and
Wellington, as well as of royal heads; made a large fortune, and left it
for the encouragement of art (1781-1841).


CHANZY, a French general, born at Nouart, Ardennes; served in
Algeria; commanded the army of the Loire in 1870-71; distinguished
himself by his brilliant retreat from Mans to Laval; was afterwards
Governor-General in Algeria; died suddenly, to the regret of his country
(1823-1883).


CHAOS, a name in the ancient cosmogomy for the formless void out of
which everything at first sprang into existence, or the wide-spread
confusion that prevailed before it shaped itself into order under the
breath of the spirit of life.


CHAPELAIN, a French poet, protege of Richelieu, born at Paris;
composed a pretentious poem on Joan of Arc, entitled "Pucelle," which was
laughed out of existence on the appearance of the first half, consisting
of only 12 of the 24 books promised, the rest having never passed beyond
the MS. stage (1595-1674).


CHAPMAN, GEORGE, English dramatic poet, born at Hitchin,
Hertfordshire; wrote numerous plays, both in tragedy and comedy, as well
as poems, of unequal merit, but his great achievement, and the one on
which his fame rests, is his translation into verse of the works of
Homer, which, though not always true to the letter, is instinct with
somewhat of the freshness and fire of the original; his translation is
reckoned the best yet done into English verse, and the best rendering
into verse of any classic, ancient or modern (1559-1634).


CHAPPELL, musical amateur, collector and editor of old English airs,
and contributor to the history of English national music; was one of the
founders of the Musical Hungarian Society, and the Percy Society
(1809-1888).


CHAPTAL, a distinguished French chemist and statesman, born at
Nogaret, Lozere; author of inventions in connection with the manufacture
of alum and saltpetre, the bleaching and the dyeing of cotton; held
office under Napoleon, and rendered great service to the arts and
manufactures of his country (1756-1832).


CHARCOT, JEAN MARTIN, a French pathologist; made a special study of
nervous diseases, including hypnotism, and was eminent for his works in
connection therewith (1823-1893).


CHARDIN, SIR JOHN, traveller, born in Paris; author of "Travels in
India and Persia," valuable for their accuracy (1643-1713).


CHARENTE (360), a dep. of France, W. of the Gironde, capital
Angouleme; with vast chestnut forests; produces wines, mostly distilled
into brandy.


CHARENTE-INFERIEURE (456), a maritime dep. of France, W. of the
former; includes the islands of Rhe, Oleron, Aix, and Madame; capital, La
Rochelle.


CHARIVA`RI, a satirical journal, such as the English _Punch_;
originally a discordant mock serenade.


CHARLEMAGNE i. e. Charles or Karl the Great, the first
Carlovingian king of the Franks, son and successor of Pepin le Bref (the
Short); became sole ruler on the death of his brother Carloman in 771; he
subjugated by his arms the southern Gauls, the Lombards, the Saxons, and
the Avares, and conducted a successful expedition against the Moors in
Spain, with the result that his kingdom extended from the Ebro to the
Elbe; having passed over into Italy in support of the Pope, he was on
Christmas Day 800 crowned Emperor of the West, after which he devoted
himself to the welfare of his subjects, and proved himself as great in
legislation as in arms; enacted laws for the empire called capitularies,
reformed the judicial administration, patronised letters, and established
schools; kept himself in touch and _au courant_ with everything over his
vast domain; he died and was buried at Aix-la-Chapelle (742-814).


CHARLEROI (21), a manufacturing town in Hainault, Belgium, 35 m. SE.
of Brussels.


CHARLES II., surnamed THE BALD, son of Louis "le Debonnaire";
after conquering his brother Lothaire at Fontenoy in 841, became by the
treaty of Verdun king of France, 843; was unable to defend his kingdom
against the Normans; went to Italy, and had himself crowned emperor at
Rome: _d_. 877.


CHARLES III., surnamed THE SIMPLE, became king of France in
893; his reign one long struggle against the Normans, which ended by
conceding Normandy to Rollo; was conquered by Hugh Capet, a rival for the
crown, at Soissons, and dethroned in 922; died in captivity, 929.


CHARLES IV., THE FAIR, third son of Philip the Fair, king of France
from 1322 to 1328; lost to France Guienne, which was taken from him by
the English; was the last of the Capetians; _d_. 1328.


CHARLES V., THE WISE, son of John II., king of France from 1361 to
1380; recovered from the English almost all the provinces they had
conquered, successes due to his own prudent policy, and especially the
heroism of Du Guesclin, De Clisson, and De Boucicaut; France owed to him
important financial reforms, the extension of privileges to the
universities, and the establishment of the first national library, into
which were gathered together thousands of MSS.; the Bastille was founded
in his reign.


CHARLES VI., THE WELL-BELOVED, king of France from 1380 to 1422, was
son and successor of Charles V.; began his reign under the guardianship
of his uncles, who rifled the public treasury and provoked rebellion by
their exactions; gained a victory at Rossbach over the Flemings, then in
revolt, and a little after dismissed his uncles and installed in their
stead the wise councillors of his father, whose sage, upright, and
beneficent administration procured for him the title of "Well-Beloved," a
state of things, however, which did not last long, for the harassments he
had been subjected to drove him insane, and his kingdom, torn in pieces
by rival factions, was given over to anarchy, and fell by treaty of
Troyes almost entirely into the hands of the English conquerors at
Agincourt (1368-1422).


CHARLES VII., THE VICTORIOUS, son of Charles VI., became king of
France in 1422; at his accession the English held possession of almost
the whole country, and he indolently made no attempt to expel them, but
gave himself up to effeminate indulgences; was about to lose his whole
patrimony when the patriotism of the nation woke up at the enthusiastic
summons of Joan of Arc; her triumphs and those of her associates weakened
the English domination, and even after her death the impulse she gave
continued to work, till at the end of 20 years the English were driven
out of France, and lost all they held in it except the town of Calais,
along with Havre, and Guines Castle (1403-1461).


CHARLES VIII., king of France, son and successor of Louis XI.;
during his minority the kingdom suffered from the turbulence and revolts
of the nobles; married Anne of Brittany, heiress of the rich duchy of
that name, by which it was added to the crown of France; sacrificed the
interests of his kingdom by war with Italy to support the claims of
French princes to the throne of Naples, which, though successful in a
military point of view, proved politically unfruitful (1470-1498).


CHARLES IX., second son of Henry II. and Catharine de' Medici,
became king of France in 1560; the civil wars of the Huguenots and
Catholics fill up this reign; the first war concluded by the peace of
Amboise, during which Francis of Guise was assassinated; the second
concluded by the peace of Longjumeau, during which Montmorency fell; the
third concluded by the peace of St. Germain, in which Conde and
Moncontour fell, which peace was broken by the massacre of St.
Bartholomew, into the perpetration of which Charles was inveigled by his
mother and the Guises; incensed at this outrage the Huguenots commenced a
fourth war, and were undertaking a fifth when Charles died, haunted by
remorse and in dread of the infinite terror (1550-1574).


CHARLES X., brother of Louis XVI. and Louis XVIII., the latter of
whom he succeeded on the throne of France in 1824; was unpopular in
France as Duc d'Artois in the time of the Revolution, and had to flee the
country at the outbreak of it, and stayed for some time as an exile in
Holyrood, Edinburgh; on his accession he became no less unpopular from
his adherence to the old regime; at an evil hour in 1830 he issued
ordinances in defiance of all freedom, and after an insurrection of three
days in the July of that year had again to flee; abdicating in favour of
his son, found refuge for a time again in Holyrood, and died at Goertz in
his eightieth year (1757-1837).


CHARLES V., (I. of Spain), emperor of Germany, son of Philip,
Archduke of Austria, born at Ghent; became king of Spain in 1516, on the
death of his maternal grandfather Ferdinand, and emperor of Germany in
1519 on the death of his paternal grandfather Maximilian I., being
crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1520; reigned during one of the most
important periods in the history of Europe; the events of the reign are
too numerous to detail; enough to mention his rivalry with Francis I. of
France, his contention as a Catholic with the Protestants of Germany, the
inroads of the Turks, revolts in Spain, and expeditions against the
pirates of the Mediterranean; the ambition of his life was the
suppression of the Protestant Reformation and the succession of his son
Philip to the Imperial crown; he failed in both; resigned in favour of
his son, and retired into the monastery of St. Yuste, in Estremadura,
near which he built a magnificent retreat, where, it is understood,
notwithstanding his apparent retirement, he continued to take interest in
political affairs, and to advise in the management of them (1500-1558).


CHARLES VI., emperor of Germany from 1711 to 1740, as well as king
of Spain from 1703, was son of the Emperor Leopold I., and father of
Maria Theresa.


CHARLES XII., king of Sweden, son of Charles XI., a warlike prince;
ascended the throne at the age of 15; had to cope with Denmark, Russia,
and Poland combined against him; foiled the Danes at Copenhagen, the
Russians at Narva, and Augustus II. of Poland at Riga; trapped in Russia,
and cooped up to spend a winter there, he was, in spring 1709, attacked
by Peter the Great at Pultowa and defeated, so that he had to take refuge
with the Turks at Bender; here he was attacked, captured, and conveyed to
Demotica, but escaping, he found his way miraculously back to Sweden, and
making peace with the Czar, commenced an attack on Norway, but was killed
by a musket-shot at the siege of Friedrickshall; "the last of the Swedish
kings"; "his appearance, among the luxurious kings and knights of the
North" at the time, Carlyle compares to "the bursting of a cataract of
bombshells in a dull ballroom" (1697-1718).


CHARLES I., king of England, third son of James I., born at
Dunfermline; failing in his suit for the Infanta of Spain, married
Henrietta Maria, a French princess, a devoted Catholic, who had great
influence over him, but not for good; had for public advisers Strafford
and Laud, who cherished in him ideas of absolute power adverse to the
liberty of the subject; acting on these ideas brought him into collision
with the Parliament, and provoked a civil war; himself the first to throw
down the gauntlet by raising the royal standard at Nottingham; in the end
of which he surrendered himself to the Scots army at Newark, who
delivered him to the Parliament; was tried as a traitor to his country,
condemned to death, and beheaded, 30th January, at Whitehall (1600-1649).


CHARLES II., king of England, son of Charles I., horn at St. James's
Palace, London; was at The Hague, in Holland, when his father was
beheaded; assumed the royal title; was proclaimed King by the Scots;
landed in Scotland, and was crowned at Scone; marching into England, was
defeated by Cromwell at Worcester, 3rd September 1651; fled to France; by
the policy of General Monk, after Cromwell's death, was restored to his
crown and kingdom in 1660, an event known as the Restoration; he was an
easy-going man, and is known in history as the "Merry Monarch"; his reign
was an inglorious one for England, though it is distinguished by the
passing of the Habeas Corpus Act, one of the great bulwarks of English
liberty next to the Magna Charta (1630-1685).


CHARLES, a French physicist, born at Beaugency; was the first to
apply hydrogen to the inflation of balloons (1746-1823).


CHARLES, ARCHDUKE, of Austria, son of the Emperor Leopold II. and
younger brother of Francis II., one of the ablest generals of Austria in
the wars against the French Republic and the Empire; lost the battle of
Wagram, after which, being wounded, he retired into private life
(1771-1847).


CHARLES ALBERT, king of Sardinia, succeeded Charles Felix in 1831;
conceived a design to emancipate and unite Italy; in the pursuit of this
object he declared war against Austria; though at first successful, was
defeated at Novara, and to save his kingdom was compelled to resign in
favour of his son Victor Emmanuel; retired to Oporto, and died of a
broken heart (1798-1849).


CHARLES EDWARD, the Young Pretender, grandson of James II. of
England, born at Rome, landed in Scotland (1745); issued a manifesto in
assertion of his father's claims; had his father proclaimed king at
Edinburgh; attacked and defeated General Cope at Prestonpans; marched at
the head of his adherents into England as far as Derby; returned, and
defeated the king's force at Falkirk, but retired before the Duke of
Cumberland, who dispersed his army at Culloden; wandered about thereafter
in disguise; escaped to France, and died at Florence (1721-1789).


CHARLES MARTEL (i. e. "Charles the Hammer"), son of Pepin
d'Heristal and grandfather of Charlemagne; became mayor of the Palace,
and as such ruler of the Franks; notable chiefly for his signal victory
over the Saracens at Poitiers in 732, whereby the tide of Mussulman
invasion was once for all rolled back and the Christianisation of Europe
assured; no greater service was ever rendered to Europe by any other
fighting man (689-741).


CHARLES OF ANJOU, brother of St. Louis, king of Naples; lost Sicily
after the Sicilian Vespers (1220-1285).


CHARLES OF VALOIS, third son of Philip the Bold, one of the greatest
captains of his age (1270-1324).


CHARLES THE RASH, last Duke of Burgundy, son of Philip the Good,
born at Dijon; enemy of Louis XI. of France, his feudal superior; was
ambitious to free the duchy from dependence on France, and to restore it
as a kingdom, and by daring enterprises tried hard to achieve this; on
the failure of the last effort was found lying dead on the field
(1433-1477).


CHARLES'S WAIN, the constellation of Ursa Major, a wagon without a
wagoner.


CHARLESTON (56), the largest city in S. Carolina, and the chief
commercial city; also a town in Western Virginia, U.S., with a spacious
land-locked harbour; is the chief outlet for the cotton and rice of the
district, and has a large coasting trade.


CHARLET, NICOLAS TOUSSAINT, a designer and painter, born in Paris;
famous for his sketches of military subjects and country life, in which
he displayed not a little humour (1792-1845).


CHARLEVILLE (17), a manufacturing and trading town in the dep. of
Ardennes, France; exports iron, coal, wines, and manufactures hardware
and beer.


CHARLEVOIX, a Jesuit and traveller, born at St. Quentin, explored
the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi (1682-1761).


CHARLOTTE, PRINCESS, daughter and only child of George IV. of
England, married to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, afterwards king of
Belgium; died after giving birth to a still-born boy, to the great grief
of the whole nation (1796-1817).


CHARLOTTE ELIZABETH OF BAVARIA, second wife of the Duke of Orleans,
brother of Louis XIV., called the Princess Palatine (1652-1722).


CHARLOTTENBURG (76), a town on the Spree, 3 m. W. of Berlin, with a
palace, the favourite residence of Sophie Charlotte, the grandmother of
Frederick the Great, and so named by her husband Frederick I. after her
death; contains the burial-place of William I., emperor of Germany.


CHARLOTTETOWN (13), the capital of Prince Edward Island.


CHARMETTES, a picturesque hamlet near Chambery, a favourite retreat
of Rousseau's.


CHARNAY, a French traveller; a writer on the ancient civilisation of
Mexico, which he has made a special study; _b_. 1828.


CHARON, in the Greek mythology the ferryman of the ghosts of the
dead over the Styx into Hades, a grim old figure with a mean dress and a
dirty beard, peremptory in exacting from the ghosts he ferried over the
obolus allowed him for passage-money.


CHARONDAS, a Sicilian law-giver, disciple of Pythagoras; is said to
have killed himself when he found he had involuntarily broken one of his
own laws (600 B.C.).


CHARRON, PIERRE, a French moralist and theologian, as well as pulpit
orator, born in Paris; author of "Les Trois Verites," the unity of God,
Christianity the sole religion, and Catholicism the only Christianity;
and of a sceptical treatise "De la Sagesse"; a friend and disciple of
Montaigne, but bolder as more dogmatic, with less _bonhommie_ and
originality, and much of a cynic withal (1541-1603).


CHARTERHOUSE, a large London school, originally a Carthusian
monastery, and for a time a residence of the dukes of Norfolk.


CHARTIER, ALAIN, an early scholarly French poet and prose writer of
note, born at Bayeux; secretary to Charleses V., VI., and VII. of France,
whom Margaret, daughter of James I. of Scotland and wife of Louis XI.,
herself a poetess, once kissed as he lay asleep for the pleasure his
poems gave her; was a patriot, and wrote as one (1390-1458).


CHARTISM, a movement of the working-classes of Great Britain for
greater political power than was conceded to them by the Reform Bill of
1832, and which found expression in a document called the "People's
Charter," drawn up in 1838, embracing six "points," as they were called,
viz., Manhood Suffrage, Equal Electoral Districts, Vote by Ballot, Annual
Parliaments, Abolition of a Property Qualification in the Parliamentary
Representation, and Payment of Members of Parliament, all which took the
form of a petition presented to the House of Commons in 1839, and signed
by 1,380,000 persons. The refusal of the petition gave rise to great
agitation over the country, which gradually died out in 1848.


CHARTRES (23), the capital of the French dep. of Eure-et-Lois, 55 m.
SW. of Paris; gave title of Duke to the eldest of the Orleanist Bourbons.


CHARTREUSE, LA GRANDE, a monastery founded by St. Bruno in 1084 in
the dep. of Isere, 14 m. NE. of Grenoble; famous as the original place of
the manufacture of the Chartreuse liqueur, held in much repute; it was
honoured by a visit of Queen Victoria in 1887; Ruskin was disappointed
with both monks and monastery.


CHARYBDIS. See SCYLLA.


CHASE, SALMON PORTLAND, Chief-Justice of the United States; a great
anti-slavery advocate and leader of the Free-Soil party; aimed at the
Presidency, but failed (1773-1808).


CHASI`DIM, a party among the Jews identified with the Pharisees,
their supreme concern the observance of their religion in its purity.


CHASLES, MICHEL, an eminent French mathematician, and held one of
the first in the century; on the faith of certain autographs, which were
afterwards proved to be forgeries, he in 1867 astonished the world by
ascribing to Pascal the great discoveries of Newton, but had to admit he
was deceived (1793-1880).


CHASLES, PHILARETE, a French litterateur, born near Chartres, a
disciple of Rousseau; lived several years in England, and wrote
extensively on English subjects, Shakespeare, Mary Stuart, Charles I.,
and Cromwell among the chief (1799-1873).


CHASSE, DAVID HENDRIK, BARON, a Dutch soldier; served France under
Napoleon, who called him "General Baionnette," from his zealous use of
the bayonet; fought at Waterloo on the opposite side; as governor of
Antwerp, gallantly defended its citadel in 1832 against a French and
Belgian force twelve times larger than his own (1765-1849).


CHASSEPOT, a French breech-loading rifle named from the inventor.


CHASSEURS, picked bodies of light cavalry and infantry in the French
service, called respectively _Chasseurs-a-cheval_ and _Chasseurs-a-pied_.


CHASTELARD, PIERRE DE BOSCOSEL DE, grandson of Bayard; conceived an
insane passion for Queen Mary, whom he accompanied to Scotland; was
surprised in her bedchamber, under her bed, and condemned to death, it
being his second offence (1540-1562).


CHAT MOSS, a large bog in Lancashire, 7 m. W. of Manchester, which
is partly reclaimed and partly, through the ingenuity of George
Stephenson, traversed by the Liverpool and Manchester Railway.


CHATEAUBRIAND, FRANCOIS RENE DE, eminent French litterateur, born in
St. Malo, younger son of a noble family of Brittany; travelled to N.
America in 1791; returned to France on the arrest of Louis XVI., and
joined the EMIGRANTS (q. v.) at Coblenz; was wounded at the
siege of Thionville, and escaped to England; wrote an "Essay on
Revolutions Ancient and Modern," conceived on liberal lines; was tempted
back again to France in 1800; wrote "Atala," a story of life in the wilds
of America, which was in 1802 followed by his most famous work, "Genie du
Christianisme"; entered the service of Napoleon, but withdrew on the
murder of the Duc d'Enghien; though not obliged to leave France, made a
journey to the East, the fruit of which was his "Itineraire de Paris a
Jerusalem"; hailed with enthusiasm the restoration of the Bourbons in
1814; supported the Bourbon dynasty all through, though he wavered
sometimes in the interest of liberty; withdrew from public life on the
elevation of Louis Philippe to the throne; he was no thinker, but he was
a fascinating writer, and as such exercised no small influence on the
French literature of his day; he lived in a transition period, and
hovered between legitimism and liberty, the revolution and reaction, and
belonged to the Romantic school of literature--was perhaps the father of
it in France (1766-1848).


CHATEAUX EN ESPAGNE, castles in Spain, visionary projects.


CHATELET, MARQUISE DE, a learned Frenchwoman, born at Paris, with
whom Voltaire kept up an intimate acquaintanceship (1706-1749).


CHATELLERAULT (18), a town in the dep. of Vienne, 24 m. NE. of
Poitiers; gave title to the Scottish regent, the Earl of Arran;
manufactures cutlery and small-arms for the Government.


CHATHAM (59), a town in Kent, on the estuary of the Medway, a
fortified naval arsenal; is connected with Rochester.


CHATHAM, WILLIAM PITT, EARL OF, a great British statesman and
orator, born in Cornwall; determined opponent of Sir Robert Walpole;
succeeded in driving him from power, and at length installing himself in
his place; had an eye to the greatness and glory of England, summoned the
English nation to look to its laurels; saw the French, the rivals of
England, beaten back in the four quarters of the globe; driven at length
from power himself, he still maintained a single regard for the honour of
his country, and the last time his voice was heard in the Parliament of
England was to protest against her degradation by an ignoble alliance
with savages in the war with America; on this occasion he fell back in a
faint into the arms of his friends around, and died little more than a
month after; "for four years" (of his life), says Carlyle, "king of
England; never again he; never again one resembling him, nor indeed can
ever be." See SMELFUNGUS on his character and position in
Carlyle's "Frederick," Book xxi. chap. i. (1708-1775).


CHATHAM ISLANDS, a group of islands 360 m. E. of New Zealand, and
politically connected with it; the chief industry is the rearing of
cattle.


CHATSWORTH, the palatial seat of the Duke of Devonshire, in
Derbyshire, 8 m. W. of Chesterfield, enclosed in a park, with gardens, 10
m. in circumference.


CHATTERTON, THOMAS, a poet of great promise, had a tragic fate, born
at Bristol, passed off while but a boy as copies of ancient MSS., and
particularly of poems which he ascribed to one Rowley, a monk of the 17th
century, what were compositions of his own, exhibiting a genius of no
small literary, not to say lyric, power; having vainly endeavoured to
persuade any one of their genuineness, though he had hopes of the
patronage of Sir Robert Walpole, he left Bristol for London, and made
vehement efforts with his pen to bespeak regard, but failed; grew
desperate, and committed suicide at the early age of 18 (1752-1770).


CHAUCER, GEOFFREY, the great early English poet, and father of
English poetry, the son of a vintner and taverner, born probably in
London, where he lived almost all his days; when a lad, served as page in
the royal household; won the favour and patronage of the king, Edward
III. and his son, John of Gaunt, who pensioned him; served in an
expedition to France; was made prisoner, but ransomed by the king; was
often employed on royal embassies, in particular to Italy; held
responsible posts at home; was thus a man of the world as well as a man
of letters; he comes first before us as a poet in 1369; his poetic powers
developed gradually, and his best and ripest work, which occupied him at
intervals from 1373 to 1400, is his "CANTERBURY TALES" (q. v.),
characterised by Stopford Brooke as "the best example of English
story-telling we possess"; besides which he wrote, among other
compositions, "The Life of St. Cecilia," "Troilus and Cressida," the
"House of Fame," and the "Legend of Good Women"; his influence on English
literature has been compared to that of Dante on Italian, and his
literary life has been divided into three periods--the French, the
Italian, and the English, according as the spirit of it was derived from
a foreign or a native source (1340-1400).


CHAUMETTE, PIERRE GASPARD, a violent member of the extreme party in
the French Revolution, could "recognise the suspect from the very face of
them"; provoked the disgust of even Robespierre, and was arrested amid
jeers and guillotined (1763-1794).


CHAUTAUQUA, a summer resort on a lake of the name in the W. of New
York State, centre of a novel institution, which prescribes a four years'
course of private readings, and grants diplomas to those who anywhere
achieve it.


CHAUVINISM, a name among the French for what is known as Jingoism
among the English, i. e. an extravagant zeal for the glory of one's
country or party, from one _Chauvin_, who made threatening displays of
his devotion to Napoleon after his fall in 1815.


CHEDDAR, a village in Somersetshire, on the Mendip Hills, famous for
its cheese.


CHEKE, SIR JOHN, a zealous Greek scholar, born at Cambridge, and
first regius professor of Greek there; did much to revive in England an
interest in Greek and Greek literature; was tutor to Edward VI., who
granted him landed estates; favouring the cause of Lady Jane Grey on the
accession of Mary, left the country, was seized, and sent back; for fear
of the stake abjured Protestantism, but never forgave himself, and died
soon after; he introduced the mode of pronouncing Greek prevalent in
England (1514-1557).


CHELMSFORD (11), the county town of Essex, on the Chelmer.


CHELSEA (96), a western suburb of London, on the N. of the Thames;
famous for its hospital for old and disabled soldiers, and the place of
residence of sundry literary celebrities, among others Sir Thomas More,
Swift, Steele, and Carlyle.


CHELTENHAM (49), a healthy watering-place and educational centre in
Gloucestershire; first brought into repute as a place of fashionable
resort by the visits of George III. to it; contains a well-equipped
college, where a number of eminent men have been educated.


CHELYUSKIN, CAPE, in Siberia, the most northerly point in the
Eastern hemisphere.


CHEMICAL AFFINITY, the tendency elementary bodies have to combine
and remain in combination.


CHEMISM, in the Hegelian philosophy "the mutual attraction,
interpenetration, and neutralisation of independent individuals which
unite to form a whole."


CHEMISTRY, the science that treats of elementary bodies and their
combinations: _inorganic_, relating to physical compounds; _organic_,
relating to vegetable and animal compounds.


CHEMNITZ (160), a manufacturing town in Saxony, called the "Saxon
Manchester," at the foot of the Erzgebirge, in a rich mineral district;
manufactures cottons, woollens, silks, machinery, &c.


CHEMNITZ, MARTIN, an eminent Lutheran theologian, born in
Brandenburg, a disciple of Melanchthon; author of "Loci Theologici," a
system of theology; took a leading part in procuring the adoption of the
"Formula of Concord"; his chief work "Examen Concilii Tridentini"
(1522-1586).


CHEMOSH, the national god of the Moabites, akin to Moloch, and their
stay in battle, but an abomination to the children of Jehovah.


CHEMULPO, a town on the W. coast of Corea; a thriving town since it
became a treaty-port in 1883.


CHENAB`, an affluent on the left bank of the Indus, and one of the
five rivers, and the largest, which give name to the Punjab; is 750 m.
long.


CHENERY, THOMAS, a journalist; became editor of the _Times_; was
distinguished for his knowledge of Arabic and Hebrew, and was one of the
Old Testament revisers (1826-1884).


CHENIER, MARIE-ANDRE, French poet, greatest in the 18th century,
born at Constantinople; author of odes, idylls, and elegies, which place
him high among French poets; took part in the Revolution as a lover of
order as well as of liberty; offended Robespierre, and was guillotined
two days before the fall of Robespierre; as a poet he was distinguished
for the purity of his style and his originality (1762-1794).


CHENONCEAUX, a magnificent chateau near Amboise, in, France; built
by Francis I. for the Duchesse d'Etampes, afterwards the property of the
Condes, and afterwards of Madame Dupont.


CHENU, a French naturalist; author of an "Encyclopaedia of Natural
History" (1808-1879).


CHEOPHREN, king of Egypt, brother and successor of Cheops; built the
second great pyramid.


CHEOPS, king of Memphis, in Egypt, of the 4th dynasty; builder of
the largest of the pyramids about 3000 B.C.


CHEPSTOW (4), a port on the Wye, Monmouthshire, 17 m. N. of Newport;
with a tubular suspension bridge, and where the tides are higher than
anywhere else in Britain.


CHER, an affluent of the Loire below Tours; also the dep. in France
(359) to which it gives name; an agricultural and pastoral district;
capital Bourges.


CHERBOURG (40), a French port and arsenal in the dep. of Manche,
opposite the Isle of Wight, 70 m. distant, on the construction and
fortifications of which immense sums were expended, as much as eight
millions; the fortifications were begun by Vauban.


CHERBULIEZ, VICTOR, novelist, critic, and publicist, born at Geneva,
of a distinguished family; professor of Greek at Geneva; holds a high
place, and is widely known, as a writer of a series of works of fiction;
_b_. 1826.


CHER`IBON (11), a seaport of Java, on the N. of the island.


CHERITH, a brook E. of the Jordan, Elijah's hiding-place.


CHEROKEES, a tribe of American Indians, numbering some 20,000, in
the NW. of the Indian Territory, U.S.; civilised, self-governing, and
increasing; formerly occupied the region about the Tennessee River.


CHERONE`A, a town in Boeotia, where Philip of Macedon conquered the
Athenians and Thebans, 338 B.C., and Sulla defeated Mithridates, 86 B.C.;
the birthplace of Plutarch, who is hence called the Cheronean Sage.


CHERRA PUNJI (5), a village in the Khasi Hills, Assam, with the
heaviest rainfall of any place on the globe.


CHERSONE`SUS (i. e. continent island), a name which the Greeks
gave to several peninsulas, viz., the Tauric C., the Crimea, the Thracian
C., Gallipoli; the Cimbric C., Jutland; the Golden C., the Malay
Peninsula.


CHERTSEY (11), a very old town of Surrey, 21 m. SW. of London, on
the right bank of the Thames.


CHERUBIM, an order of angelic beings conceived of as accompanying
the manifestations of Jehovah, supporting His throne and protecting His
glory, guarding it from profane intrusion; winged effigies of them
overshadowed the MERCY SEAT (q. v.).


CHERUBIM, a character in the "Mariage de Figaro"; also the 11th
Hussars, from their trousers being of a cherry colour.


CHERUBINI, a celebrated musical composer, born at Florence;
naturalised in France; settled in Paris, the scene of his greatest
triumphs; composed operas, of which the chief were "Iphigenia in Aulis,"
and "Les deux Journees; or, The Water-Carrier," his masterpiece; also a
number of sacred pieces and requiems, all of the highest merit; there is
a portrait of him by Ingres (1842) in the Louvre, representing the Muse
of his art extending her protecting hand over his head (1760-1842).


CHERUEL, ADOLPHE, French historian, born at Rouen; author of
"History of France during the Minority of Louis XIV."; published the
"Memoirs of Saint-Simon" (1809-1891).


CHERUSCI, an ancient people of Germany, whose leader was Arminius,
and under whom they defeated the Romans, commanded by Varus, in 9 A.D.


CHESAPEAKE BAY, a northward-extending inlet on the Atlantic coast of
the United States, 200 m. long and from 10 to 40 m. broad, cutting
Maryland in two.


CHESELDEN, WILLIAM, an English anatomist and surgeon, whose work,
"Anatomy of the Human Body," was long used as a text-book on that science
(1688-1752).


CHESHIRE (730), a western county of England, between the Mersey and
the Dee, the chief mineral products of which are coal and rock-salt, and
the agricultural, butter and cheese; has numerous manufacturing towns,
with every facility for inter-communication, and the finest pasture-land
in England.


CHESHUNT (9), a large village in Hertfordshire, 14 m. N. of London,
with rose gardens, and a college founded by the Countess of Huntingdon.


CHESIL BEACH, a neck of land on the Devonshire coast, 15 m. long,
being a ridge of loose pebbles and shingle.


CHESNEY, C. CORNWALLIS, professor of Military History, nephew of the
succeeding, author of "Waterloo Lectures" (1826-1876).


CHESNEY, FRANCIS RAWDON, explorer, born in co. Down, Ireland;
explored with much labour the route to India by way of the Euphrates,
though his labours were rendered futile by the opposition of Russia;
proved, by survey of the isthmus, the practicability of the Suez Canal
(1798-1872).


CHESTER (41), the county town of Cheshire, on the Dee, 16 m. SE. of
Liverpool; an ancient city founded by the Romans; surrounded by walls
nearly 2 m. long, and from 7 to 8 ft. thick, forming a promenade with
parapets; the streets are peculiar; along the roofs of the lower storeys
of the houses there stretch piazzas called "Rows," at the original level
of the place, 16 ft. wide for foot-passengers, approached by steps; it
abounds in Roman remains, and is altogether a unique town.


CHESTERFIELD (22), a town in Derbyshire, 21 m. N. of Derby; in a
mineral district; manufactures cotton, woollen, and silk; has a canal
connecting it with the Trent.


CHESTERFIELD, PHILIP DORMER STANHOPE, EARL OF, statesman, orator,
and man of letters, eldest son of the third earl, born in London; sat in
the House of Commons from 1716 to 1726; was an opponent of Walpole; held
office under the Pelhams; in 1748 retired from deafness, or perhaps
disgust, into private life; celebrated for his "Letters to his Son,"
models of elegance, though of questionable morality, which it appears he
never intended to publish, and for the scorn with which Dr. Johnson
treated him when he offered to help him, after he no longer needed any,
in a letter which gave the death-blow to the patronage of literature; is
credited by Carlyle with having predicted the French Revolution; it
should be added, the "Letters" were printed by his son's widow
(1694-1773).


CHEVALIER, MICHEL, a celebrated French economist, born at Limoges;
originally a Socialist of the St. Simonian school; for defending
Socialism was imprisoned, but recanted, and wrote ably against Socialism;
was a free-trader and coadjutor of Cobden (1806-1879).


CHEVALIER, SULPICE. See GAVARNI.


CHEVALIER D'INDUSTRIE, one who lives by his wits, specially by
swindling.


CHEVALIER ST. GEORGE, the Pretender.


CHEVAUX-DE-FRISE, a military fence composed of a beam or a bar armed
with long spikes, literally Friesland horses, having been first used in
Friesland.


CHEVERT, a French general, born at Verdun; "a bit of right soldier
stuff"; distinguished himself in many engagements, and especially at the
siege of Prague in 1757 (1696-1773).


CHEVIOT HILLS, a range on the borders of England and Scotland,
extending 35 m. south-westwards, the highest in Northumberland 2676 ft.,
the Carter Fell being 2020 ft.; famous for its breed of sheep.


CHEVREUL, MICHEL EUGENE, a French chemist, born at Angers; an expert
in the department of dyeing, and an authority on colours, as well as the
chemistry of fats; was director in the dyeing department in the Gobelins
manufactory; he lived to witness the centenary of his birth (1786-1889).


CHEVREUSE, DUCHESSE DE, played an important part in the Fronde and
in the plots against Richelieu and Mazarin; her Life has been written by
Victor Cousin (1600-1679).


CHEVRON, in heraldry an ordinary of two bands forming an angle
descending to the extremities of the shield; representing the two rafters
of a house, meeting at the top.


CHEVY CHASE, the subject and title of a highly popular old English
ballad, presumed to refer to an event in connection with the battle of
Otterburn; there were strains in it which Sir Philip Sidney said moved
his heart more than with a trumpet.


CHEYENNE INDIANS, a warlike tribe of Red Indians, now much reduced,
and partially settled in the Indian Territory, U.S.; noted for their
horsemanship.


CHEYNE, GEORGE, a physician and medical writer, born in
Aberdeenshire, in practice in London; suffered from corpulency, being 32
stone in weight, but kept it down by vegetable and milk diet, which he
recommended to others in the like case; wrote on fevers, nervous
disorders, and hygiene; wrote also on fluxions (1671-1743).


CHEYNE, THOMAS KELLY, an eminent Biblical scholar, born in London;
Oriel Professor of Scripture Exegesis, Oxford, and canon of Rochester;
author of numerous works on the Old Testament, particularly on "Isaiah"
and the "Psalms," in which he advocates conclusions in accord with modern
critical results; _b_. 1841.


CHEZY, DE, a French Orientalist, born at Neuilly; the first to
create in France an interest in the study of Sanskrit (1773-1832).


CHIABRERA, GABRIELLO, an Italian lyric poet, born at Savona;
distinguished, especially for his lyrics; surnamed the "Pindar of Italy,"
Pindar being a Greek poet whom it was his ambition to imitate
(1552-1637).


CHIA`NA, a small, stagnant, pestilential affluent of the Tiber, now
deepened into a healthful and serviceable stream, connecting the Tiber
with the Arno.


CHIAPAS, LAS (270), a Pacific State of Mexico, covered with forests;
yields maize, sugar, cacao, and cotton.


CHIAROSCURO, the reproduction in art of the effects of light and
shade on nature as they mutually affect each other.


CHIBCHAS or MUYSCAS, a civilised people, though on a lower
stage than the Peruvians, whom the Spaniards found established in New
Granada in the 16th century, now merged in the Spanish population; they
worship the sun.


CHICA, an orange-red colouring matter obtained from boiling the
leaves of the _Bignonia chica_, and used as a dye.


CHICAGO (1,700), the metropolis of Illinois, in the NE. of the
State, on the SW. shore of Lake Michigan, is the second city in the
Union; its unparalleled growth, dating only from 1837--in 1832 a mere
log-fort, and now covering an area of 180 sq. m., being 21 m. in length
and 10 m. in breadth--is due to its matchless facilities for
communication. Situated in the heart of the continent, a third of the
United States railway system centres in it, and it communicates with all
Canada, and with the ocean by the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River;
laid out with absolute regularity, it has many magnificent buildings,
enormously tall office "sky-scrapers," and an unrivalled system of parks
and avenues; there are a university, medical, commercial, and theological
colleges, an art institute, libraries, and observatory; it suffered
severely from fire in 1871 and 1874; it is the greatest grain and pork
market in the world, and its manufactures include almost every variety of
production; the population is a mixture of all European peoples;
native-born Americans are a small minority, outnumbered by the Germans
and almost equalled by the Irish.


CHICARD, the harlequin of the modern French carnival, grotesquely
dressed up.


CHICHELEY, HENRY, archbishop of Canterbury, a scholar and statesman,
often employed on embassies, a moderate churchman; accompanied Henry V.
to Agincourt (1362-1442).


CHICHESTER (9), a cathedral city in the W. of Sussex, 17 m. NE. of
Portsmouth, with a port on the Channel 2 m. SW. of it; chief trade in
agricultural produce.


CHICHEVACHE, a monster fabled to feed on good women, and starved,
from the scarcity of them, to skin and bone, in contrast with another
called Bicorn, that fed on good men, who are more plentiful, and was fat
and plump.


CHICKASAWS, N. American Indians, allied to the Chocktaws, settled in
a civilised state in the Indian Territory like the Cherokees.


CHICLANA (12), a watering-place 12 m. SB. of Cadiz, with mineral
baths.


CHIEF, the upper part of an escutcheon cut off by a horizontal line.


CHIEM-SEE, a high-lying lake in Upper Bavaria, 48 m. from Muenich,
adorned with three islands; famous for its fish.


CHIEN DE JEAN DE NIVELLE, the dog that never came when it was
called. See NIVELLE.


CHIE`TI (22), a city in Central Italy, 78 m. NE. of Rome, with a
fine Gothic cathedral.


CHIGI, a distinguished Italian family, eminent in the Church.


CHIGOE, an insect which infests the skin of the feet, multiplies
incredibly, and is a great annoyance to the negro, who, however, is
pretty expert in getting rid of it.


CHIHUA`HUA (25), a town in Mexico; capital of a State (298), the
largest in Mexico, of the same name, with famous silver and also copper
mines.


CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES, an American scholar, born in Boston; professor
of Anglo-Saxon and Early English Literature at Harvard; distinguished as
the editor of Spenser and of "English and Scottish Ballads," "a
monumental collection"; _b_. 1825.


CHILD, LYDIA MARIA, an American novelist and anti-slavery advocate
(1802-1880).


CHILD, SIR JOSHUA, a wealthy London merchant, author of "Discourse
on Trade," with an appendix against usury; advocated the compulsory
transportation of paupers to the Colonies (1630-1699).


CHILDE, the eldest son of a nobleman who has not yet attained to
knighthood, or has not yet won his spurs.


CHILDE HAROLD, a poem of Byron's, written between 1812 and 1819,
representing the author himself as wandering over the world in quest of
satisfaction and returning sated to disgust; it abounds in striking
thoughts and vivid descriptions; in his "Dernier Chant of C. H."
Lamartine takes up the hero where Byron leaves him.


CHILDERBERT I., son of Clovis, king of Paris, reigned from 511 to
558. C. II., son of Siegbert and Brunhilda, king of Austrasia,
reigned from 575 to 596. C. III., son of Thierri III., reigned over
all France from 695 to 711, under the mayor of the palace, Pepin
d'Heristal.


CHILDERBRAND, a Frank warrior, who figures in old chronicles as the
brother of Charles Martel, signalised himself in the expulsion of the
Saracens from France.


CHILDERIC I., the son of Merovig and father of Clovis, king of the
Franks; _d_. 481. C. II., son of Clovis II., king of Austrasia in
660, and of all France in 670; assassinated 673. C. III., son of the
preceding, last of the Merovingian kings, from 743 to 752; was deposed by
Pepin le Bref; died in the monastery of St. Omer in 755.


CHILDERMAS, a festival to commemorate the massacre of the children
by Herod.


CHILDERS, ROBERT C., professor of Pali and Buddhistic Literature in
University College, and author of Pali Dictionary (1809-1876).


CHILDREN OF THE WOOD, two children, a boy and girl, left to the care
of an uncle, who hired two ruffians to murder them, that he might inherit
their wealth; one of the ruffians relented, killed his companion, and
left the children in a wood, who were found dead in the morning, a
redbreast having covered their bodies with strawberry leaves; the uncle
was thereafter goaded to death by the furies.


CHILE (2,867), the most advanced and stable of the S. American
States, occupies a strip of country, 100 m. broad, between the Andes and
the Pacific Ocean, and stretching from Cape Horn northward 2200 m. to
Peru, with Argentine and Bolivia on its eastern borders. The climate is
naturally various. In the N. are rainless tracts of mountains rich in
copper, manganese, silver, and other metals, and deserts with wonderful
deposits of nitrate. In the S. are stretches of pastoral land and virgin
forest, with excessive rains, and cold, raw climate. The central portion
enjoys a temperate climate with moderate rainfall, and produces excellent
wheat, grapes, and fruits of all kinds. The Andes tower above the
snow-line, Aconcagua reaching 23,500 ft. The rivers are short and rapid,
of little use for navigation. The coast-line is even in the N., but
excessively rugged and broken in the S., the most southerly regions being
weird and desolate. The people are descendants of Spaniards, mingled with
Araucanian Indians; but there is a large European element in all the
coast towns. Mining and agriculture are the chief industries;
manufactures of various kinds are fostered with foreign capital. The
chief trade is with Britain: exports nitre, wheat, copper, and iodine;
imports, textiles, machinery, sugar, and cattle. Santiago (250) is the
capital; Valparaiso (150) and Iquique the principal ports. The government
is republican; Roman Catholicism the State religion; education is fairly
well fostered; there is a university at Santiago. The country was first
visited by Magellan in 1520. In 1540 Pedro Valdivia entered it from Peru
and founded Santiago. During colonial days it was an annex of Peru. In
1810 the revolt against Spain broke out. Independence was gained in 1826.
Settled government was established in 1847. Since then a revolution in
1851, successful wars with Spain 1864-66, with Bolivia and Peru 1879-81,
and a revolution in 1891, have been the most stirring events in its
history.


CHILLIANWALLA, a village in the Punjab, 80 m. NW. of Lahore, the
scene in 1849 of a bloody battle in the second Sikh War, in which the
Sikhs were defeated by Gen. Gough; it was also the scene of a battle
between Alexander the Great and Porus.


CHILLINGHAM, a village in Northumberland, 8 m. SW. of Belford, with
a park attached to the castle, the seat of the Earl of Tankerville,
containing a herd of native wild cattle.


CHILLINGWORTH, WILLIAM, an able English controversial divine, who
thought forcibly and wrote simply, born at Oxford; championed the cause
of Protestantism against the claims of Popery in a long-famous work, "The
Religion of Protestants the Safe Way to Salvation," summing up his
conclusion in the oft-quoted words, "The Bible, the Bible alone, is the
religion of Protestants"; though a Protestant, he was not a Puritan or a
man of narrow views, and he suffered at the hands of the Puritans as an
adherent of the Royalist cause (1602-1643).


CHILLON, CASTLE OF, a castle and state prison built on a rock, 62
ft. from the shore, at the eastern end of the Lake of Geneva; surnamed
the Bastille of Switzerland, in which Bonivard, the Genevese patriot,
was, as celebrated by Byron, incarcerated for six years; it is now an
arsenal.


CHILOE (77), a thickly wooded island off the coast, and forming a
province, of Chile, 115 m. long from N. to S., and 43 m. broad; inhabited
chiefly by Indians; exports timber; is said to contain vast deposits of
coal.


CHILTERN HILLS, a range of chalk hills extending about 70 m. NE.
from the Thames in Oxfordshire through Bucks, from 15 to 20 m. broad, the
highest Wendover, 950 ft.


CHILTERN HUNDREDS, a wardship of beech forests on the Chiltern Hills
against robbers, that at one time infested them; now a sinecure office,
the acceptance of which enables a member of Parliament to resign his seat
if he wishes to retire, the office being regarded as a Government one.


CHIMAERA, a fire-breathing monster of the Greek mythology, with a
goat's body, a lion's head, and a dragon's tail; slain by Bellerophon,
and a symbol of any impossible monstrosity.


CHIMBORA`ZO, one of the loftiest peaks of the Andes, in Ecuador,
20,700 ft.; is an extinct volcano, and covered with perpetual snow.


CHIMPANZEE, a large African ape, from 3 to 4 ft. in height, and more
allied in several respects to man than any other ape: it is found chiefly
in W. Africa.


CHINA (300,000 to 400,000), which, with Tibet, Mongolia (from which
it is separated by the Great Wall), and parts of Turkestan, forms the
Chinese Empire; is a vast, compact, and densely peopled country in
Eastern Asia; bounded on the N. by Mongolia; W. by Tibet and Burmah; S.
by Siam, Annam, and the China Sea; and E. by the Pacific. In the W. are
lofty mountain ranges running N. and S., from which parallel ranges run
E. and W., rising to greatest height in the S. Two great rivers traverse
the country, the Hoang-ho and the Yangtse-kiang, the latter with many
large lakes in its course, and bearing on its waters an innumerable fleet
of boats and barges. Between the lower courses of these rivers lies the
Great Plain, one of the vastest and richest in the world, whose yellow
soil produces great crops with little labour and no manure. The
coast-line is long and much indented, and out of it are bitten the gulfs
of Pe-che-lee, the Yellow Sea, and Hang-chou. There are many small
islands off the coast; the mountainous Hainau is the only large one still
Chinese. The climate in the N. has a clear frosty winter, and warm rainy
summer; in the S. it is hot. The country is rich in evergreens and
flowering plants. In the N. wheat, millet, and cotton are grown; in the
S. rice, tea, sugar, silk, and opium. Agriculture is the chief industry,
and though primitive, it is remarkably painstaking and skilful. Forests
have everywhere been cleared away, and the whole country is marvellously
fertile. Its mineral wealth is enormous. Iron, copper, and coal abound in
vast quantities; has coal-fields that, it is said, if they were worked,
"would revolutionise the trade of the world." The most important
manufactures are of silk, cotton, and china. Commerce is as yet chiefly
internal; its inter-provincial trade is the largest and oldest in the
world. Foreign trade is growing, almost all as yet done with Britain and
her Colonies. Tea and silk are exported; cotton goods and opium imported.
About twenty-five ports are open to British vessels, of which the largest
are Shanghai and Canton. There are no railways; communication inland is
by road, river, and canals. The people are a mixed race of Mongol type,
kindly, courteous, peaceful, and extremely industrious, and in their own
way well educated. Buddhism is the prevailing faith of the masses,
Confucianism of the upper classes. The Government is in theory a
patriarchal autocracy, the Emperor being at once father and high-priest
of all the people, and vicegerent of heaven. The capital is Pekin (500),
in the NE. Chinese history goes back to 2300 B.C. English intercourse
with the Chinese began in 1635 A.D., and diplomatic relations between
London and Pekin were established this century. The Anglo-Chinese wars of
1840, 1857, and 1860 broke down the barrier of exclusion previously
maintained against the outside world. The Japanese war of 1894-95
betrayed the weakness of the national organisation; and the seizure of
Formosa by Japan, the Russo-Japanese protectorate over Manchuria and
Corea, the French demand for Kwang-si and Kwang-tung, enforced lease of
Kiao-chau to Germany, and of Wei-hai-wei to Britain (1898), seem to
forebode the partition of the ancient empire among the more energetic
Western nations.


CHINA, THE GREAT WALL OF, a wall, with towers and forts at
intervals, about 2000 m. long, from 20 to 30 ft. high, and 25 ft. broad,
which separates China from Mongolia on the N., and traverses high hills
and deep valleys in its winding course.


CHINAMPAS, floating gardens.


CHINCHA ISLANDS, islands off the coast of Peru that had beds of
guano, often 100 ft. thick, due to the droppings of penguins and other
sea birds, now all but, if not quite, exhausted.


CHINCHILLA, a rodent of S. America, hunted for its fur, which is
soft and of a grey colour; found chiefly in the mountainous districts of
Peru and Chile.


CHINESE GORDON, General Gordon, killed at Khartoum; so called for
having, in 1851, suppressed a rebellion in China which had lasted 15
years.


CHINOOK, a tribe of Indians in Washington Territory, noted for
flattening their skulls.


CHINSURA, a Dutch-built town on the right bank of the Hoogly, 20 m.
N. of Calcutta, with a college; is famous for cheroots.


CHINZ, a calico printed with flowers and other devices in different
colours; originally of Eastern manufacture.


CHIOGGIA (25), a seaport of Venetia, built on piles, on a lagoon
island at the mouth of the Brenta, connected with the mainland by a
bridge with 43 arches.


CHIOS, or SCIO (25), a small island belonging to Turkey, in the
Grecian Archipelago; subject to earthquakes; yields oranges and lemons in
great quantities; claims to have been the birthplace of Homer.


CHIPPENDALE, THOMAS, a cabinet-maker, born in Worcestershire; famous
in the last century for the quality and style of his workmanship; his
work still much in request.


CHIPPEWAYS, a Red Indian tribe, some 12,000 strong, located in
Michigan, U.S., and in Canada adjoining; originally occupied the N. and
W. of Lake Superior.


CHIQUITOS, Indians of a low but lively type in Bolivia and Brazil.


CHIRIQUI, an archipelago and a lagoon as well as province in Costa
Rica.


CHIRON, a celebrated Centaur, in whose nature the animal element was
subject to the human, and who was intrusted with the education of certain
heroes of Greece, among others Peleus and Achilles; was endowed with the
gift of prophecy, and skilled in athletics as well as music and the
healing art. See CENTAURS.


CHISLEHURST (6), a village in Kent, 10 m. SE. of London, where
Napoleon III. died in exile in 1873.


CHISWICK (21), a suburb of London, 7 m. SW. of St. Paul's; the
Church of St. Nicholas has monuments to several people of distinction.


CHITIN, a white horny substance found in the exoskeleton of several
invertebrate animals.


CHITRAL, a State on the frontier of India, NW. of Cashmere; since
1895 occupied by the British; a place of great strategical importance.


CHITTAGONG (24), a seaport in the Bay of Bengal, 220 m. E. of
Calcutta; exports rice, gum, tobacco, and jute.


CHITTIM, the Bible name for Cyprus.


CHIVALRY, a system of knighthood, for the profession of which the
qualifications required were dignity, courtesy, bravery, generosity; the
aim of which was the defence of right against wrong, of the weak against
the strong, and especially of the honour and the purity of women, and the
spirit of which was of Christian derivation; originally a military
organisation in defence of Christianity against the infidel.


CHIVALRY, COURT OF, a court established by Edward III., which took
cognisance of questions of honour and heraldry, as well as military
offences.


CHLADNI, FRIEDRICH, a physicist, born at Wittenberg; one of the
earliest investigators of the phenomena of sound; wrote also on aerolites
(1756-1827).


CHLOPICKI, JOSEPH, a Polish hero, born in Galicia; fought against
Russia under Napoleon; was chosen Dictator in 1830, but was forced to
resign; fought afterwards in the ranks, and was severely wounded
(1771-1854).


CHLORAL, a colourless narcotic liquid, obtained at first by the
action of chlorine on alcohol; treated with water it produces _chloral
hydrate_.


CHLORINE, elementary, greenish-yellow gas obtained from common salt;
powerful as a disinfectant, and a bleaching agent.


CHLORIS, the wife of Zephyrus, the goddess of flowers.


CHLOROFORM, a limpid, volatile liquid, in extensive use as an
anaesthetic; produced by treating alcohol with chloride of lime.


CHLOROPHYLL, the green colouring matter in plants, especially the
leaves; due to the presence and action of light.


CHLOROSIS, green sickness, a disease incident to young females at a
critical period of life, causing a pale-greenish complexion.


CHOCOLATE, a paste made by grinding the kernels of cocoa-nuts.


CHOCKTAWS, or CHACTAWS, a tribe of American Indians, settled to
civilised life in the Indian Territory, U.S.; the Chactaw Indian, with
his proud array of scalps hung up in his wigwam, is, with Carlyle, the
symbol of the pride of wealth acquired at the price of the lives of men
in body and soul.


CHOISEUL, DUC DE, minister of Louis XV.; served his master in
various capacities; was rewarded with a peerage; effected many reforms in
the army, strengthened the navy, and aided in bringing about the family
compact of the Bourbons; exercised a great influence on the politics of
Europe; was nicknamed by Catharine of Russia _Le Cocher de l'Europe_,
"the Driver of Europe"; but becoming obnoxious to Mme. du Barry, "in whom
he would discern nothing but a wonderfully dizened scarlet woman," was
dismissed from the helm of affairs, Louis's "last substantial man"
(1719-1795).


CHOISY, ABBE, a French writer, born in Paris; author of a "History
of the Church" (1644-1724).


CHOLERA MORBUS, an epidemic disease characterised by violent
vomiting and purging, accompanied with spasms, great pain, and debility;
originated in India, and has during the present century frequently spread
itself by way of Asia into populous centres of both Europe and America.


CHOLET (15), a French manufacturing town, 32 m. SW. of Angers.


CHOLULA, an ancient city, 60 m. SE. of Mexico; the largest city of
the Aztecs, with a pyramidal temple, now a Catholic church.


CHOPIN, a musical composer, born near Warsaw, of Polish origin; his
genius for music early developed itself; distinguished himself as a
pianist first at Vienna and then in Paris, where he introduced the
mazurkas; became the idol of the _salons_; visited England twice, in 1837
and 1848, and performed to admiration in London and three of the
principal cities; died of consumption in Paris; he suffered much from
great depression of spirits (1809-1849).


CHORLEY (23), a manufacturing town in N. Lancashire, 25 m. NE. of
Liverpool, with mines and quarries near it.


CHORUS, in the ancient drama a group of persons introduced on the
stage representing witnesses of what is being acted, and giving
expression to their thoughts and feelings regarding it; originally a band
of singers and dancers on festive occasions, in connection particularly
with the Bacchus worship.


CHOSROES I., surnamed the Great, king of Persia from 531 to 579, a
wise and beneficent ruler; waged war with the Roman armies successfully
for 20 years. CH. II., his grandson, king from 590 to 625; made
extensive inroads on the Byzantine empire, but was defeated and driven
back by Heraclius; was eventually deposed and put to death.


CHOUANS, insurrectionary royalists in France, in particular
Brittany, during the French Revolution, and even for a time under the
Empire, when their head-quarters were in London; so named from their
muster by night at the sound of the _chat-huant_, the screech-owl, a
nocturnal bird of prey which has a weird cry.


CHRETIEN, or CHRESTIEN, DE TROYES, a French poet or trouvere
of the last half of the 12th century; author of a number of vigorously
written romances connected with chivalry and the Round Table.


CHRIEMHILDE, a heroine in the "Niebelungen" and sister of Gunther,
who on the treacherous murder of her husband is changed from a gentle
woman into a relentless fury.


CHRISAOR, the sword of Sir Artegal in the "Faerie Queene"; it
excelled every other.


CHRIST CHURCH, a college in Oxford, founded by Wolsey 1525; was
Gladstone's college and John Ruskin's, as well as John Locke's.


CHRISTABEL, a fragmentary poem of Coleridge's; characterised by
Stopford Brooke as, for "exquisite metrical movement and for imaginative
phrasing," along with "Kubla Khan," without a rival in the language.


CHRISTADELPHIANS, an American sect, called also Thomasites, whose
chief distinctive article of faith is conditional immortality, that is,
immortality only to those who believe in Christ, and die believing in
him.


CHRISTCHURCH (16), capital of the province of Canterbury, New
Zealand, 5 m. from the sea; Littleton the port.


CHRISTIAN, the name of nine kings of Denmark, of whom the first
began to reign in 1448 and the last in 1863, and the following deserve
notice: CHRISTIAN II., conquered Sweden, but proving a tyrant, was
driven from the throne by Gustavus Vasa in 1522, upon which his own
subjects deposed him, an act which he resented by force of arms, in which
he was defeated in 1531, his person seized, and imprisoned for life;
characterised by Carlyle as a "rash, unwise, explosive man" (1481-1559).
CHRISTIAN IV., king from 1588 to 1648; took part on the Protestant
side in the Thirty Years' War, and was defeated by Tilly; he was a good
ruler, and was much beloved by his subjects; was rather unsteady in his
habits, it is said (1577-1648). CHRISTIAN IX., king from 1863; son
of Duke William of Sleswick-Holstein, father of the Princess of Wales,
George I., king of Greece, and the dowager Empress of Russia; _b_. 1818.


CHRISTIAN CONNECTION, a sect in the United States which acknowledges
the Bible alone as the rule of faith and manners.


CHRISTIAN KING, THE MOST, a title of the king of France conferred by
two different Popes.


CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE, SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING (S. P. C. K.), a religious
association in connection with the Church of England, under the patronage
of the Queen and the presidency of the Archbishop of Canterbury,
established 1698, the object of which is to disseminate a knowledge of
Christian doctrine both at home and abroad by means of churches, schools,
and libraries, and by the circulation of Bibles and Christian literature.


CHRISTIANIA (130), the capital of Norway, romantically situated at
the head of Christiania Fiord; the residence of the king and the seat of
government; a manufacturing and trading city, but it is blocked up
against traffic for four months in the year.


CHRISTIANITY, BELIEF (q. v.) that there is in Christ, as in
no other, from first to last a living incarnation, a flesh and blood
embodiment, for salvation of the ever-living spirit of the ever-living
God and Father of man, and except that by eating His flesh and drinking
His blood, that is, except by participating in His divine-human life, or
except in His spirit, there is no assurance of life everlasting to any
man; but perhaps it has never been defined all round with greater brevity
and precision than it is by Ruskin in his "Praeterita," under the
impression that the time is come when one should say a firm word
concerning it: "The total meaning of it," he says, "was, and is, that the
God who made earth and its creatures, took, at a certain time upon the
earth, the flesh and form of man; in that flesh sustained the pain and
died the death of the creature He had made; rose again after death into
glorious human life, and when the date of the human race is ended, will
return in visible human form, and render to every mail according to his
work. _Christianity is the belief in, and love of, God thus manifested_.
Anything _less_ than this," he adds, "the mere acceptance of the sayings
of Christ, or assertion of any less than divine power in His Being, may
be, for aught I know, enough for virtue, peace, and safety; but they do
not make people Christians, or enable them to understand the heart of the
simplest believer in the old doctrine."


CHRISTIANSAND (12), a town and seaport in the extreme S. of Norway,
with a considerable trade.


CHRISTIE, WILLIAM HENRY MAHONEY, astronomer-royal, born at Woolwich,
of Trinity College, Cambridge; author of "Manual of Elementary
Astronomy"; _b_. 1845.


CHRISTINA, queen of Sweden, daughter and only child of Gustavus
Adolphus; received a masculine education, and was trained in manly
exercises; governed the country well, and filled her court with learned
men, but by-and-by her royal duties becoming irksome to her, she declared
her cousin as her successor, resigned the throne, and turned Catholic;
her cousin dying, she claimed back her crown, but her subjects would not
now have her; she stayed for a time in France, but was obliged to leave;
retired to Rome, where she spent 20 years of her life engaged in
scientific and artistic studies, and died (1628-1689).


CHRISTINA, MARIA, daughter of Francis I. of Naples, and wife of
Ferdinand VII. of Spain, on whose death she acted for four years as
regent, during the infancy of her daughter Isabella (1806-1878).


CHRISTISON, SIR ROBERT, toxicologist, born at Edinburgh, and
professor, first of Medical Jurisprudence and then of Materia Medica, in
his native city; wrote a "Treatise on Poison," a standard work
(1797-1882).


CHRISTMAS, the festival in celebration of the birth of Christ now
celebrated all over Christendom on 25th December, as coinciding with an
old heathen festival celebrated at the winter solstice, the day of the
return of the sun northward, and in jubilation of the prospect of the
renewal of life in the spring.


CHRISTOLOGY, the department of theology which treats of the person
of Christ.


CHRISTOPHE, HENRI, a negro, born in Grenada; one of the leaders of
the insurgent slaves in Hayti, who, proving successful in arms against
the French, became king under the title of Henry I., but ruling
despotically provoked revolt, and shot himself through the heart; he was
a man of powerful physique; _b_. 1820.


CHRISTOPHER, ST., (the Christ-Bearer), according to Christian legend
a giant of great stature and strength, who, after serving the devil for a
time, gave himself up to the service of Christ by carrying pilgrims
across a bridgeless river, when one day a little child, who happened to
be none else than Christ Himself, appeared to be carried over, but,
strange to say, as he bore Him across, the child grew heavier and
heavier, till he was nearly baffled in landing Him on the opposite shore.
The giant represented the Church, and the increasing weight of the child
the increasing sin and misery which the Church has from age to age to
bear in carrying its Christ across the Time-river; the giant is
represented in art as carrying the infant on his shoulder, and as having
for staff the stem of a large tree.


CHRISTOPHER NORTH, the name assumed by JOHN WILSON (q. v.)
in _Blackwood's Magazine_.


CHRISTOPHER'S, ST., (30), popularly called _St. Kitts_, one of the
Leeward Islands, discovered by Columbus (1493), who named it after
himself; belongs to England; has sugar plantations.


CHRIST'S HOSPITAL, the Blue-Coat School, London, was founded in
1547, a large institution, on the foundation of which there are now 2170
pupils instead of 1200 as formerly; entrance to it is gained partly by
presentation and partly by competition, and attached are numerous
exhibitions and prizes; among the _alumni_ have been several noted men,
such as Bishop Stillingfleet, Coleridge, Leigh Hunt, and Charles Lamb.


CHROMATICS, that department of optics which treats of colours, and
resolves the primary colours into three--red, yellow, and blue.


CHRONICLERS, THE RHYMING, a series of writers who flourished in
England in the 13th century, and related histories of the country in
rhyme, in which the fabulous occupies a conspicuous place, among which
Layamon's "Brut" (1205) takes the lead.


CHRONICLES I. and II., two historical books of the Old
Testament, the narratives of which, with additions and omissions, run
parallel with those of Samuel and Kings, but written from a priestly
standpoint, give the chief prominence to the history of Judah as the
support in Jerusalem of the ritual of which the priests were the
custodians; Ezra and Nehemiah are continuations.


CHRYSEIS, the daughter of Chryses, priest of Apollo, a beautiful
maiden who fell among the spoils of a victory to Agamemnon, and became
his slave, and whom he refused to restore to her father until a deadly
plague among the Greeks, at the hands of Apollo, whose priest her father
was, compelled him to give her up.


CHRYSIPPUS, a Greek philosopher, born at Soli, in Cilicia, and lived
in Athens; specially skilled in dialectic; the last and greatest
expounder and defender of the philosophy of the Stoa, so pre-eminent,
that it was said of him, "If Chrysippus were not, the Stoa were not"; is
said to have written 705 books, not one of which, however, has come down
to us save a few fragments (280-208 B.C.). See STOICISM.


CHRYSOLO`RAS, a Grecian scholar, born at Constantinople, left his
native country and lived in Florence, where he, in the 14th century,
became a teacher of Greek literature, and contributed thereby to the
revival of letters in Italy; _d_. 1415.


CHRYSOSTOM, ST. JOHN, that is, Mouth of Gold, so called from his
eloquence, born at Antioch; converted to Christianity from a mild
paganism; became one of the Fathers of the Church, and Patriarch of
Constantinople; he was zealous in suppressing heresy, as well as
corruption in the Church, and was for that reason thrice over subjected
to banishment; in the course of the third of which and while on the way,
he died, though his remains was brought to Constantinople and there
deposited with great solemnity; he left many writings behind
him--sermons, homilies, commentaries, and epistles, of which his
"Homilies" are most studied and prized (347-407). Festival, Jan. 27.


CHUBB, THOMAS, an English Deist, born near Salisbury; he regarded
Christ as a divine teacher, but held reason to be sovereign in matters of
religion, yet was on rational grounds a defender of Christianity; had no
learning, but was well up in the religious controversies of the time, and
bore his part in them creditably (1679-1746).


CHUNDER SEN, one of the founders of the BRAHMO-SOMAJ (q. v.);
he visited Europe in 1870, and was welcomed with open arms by the
rationalist class of Churchmen and Dissenters.


CHUQUISA`CA (20), (i. e. Bridge of Gold), the capital of Bolivia,
in a sheltered plain 9000 ft. above the sea-level; is a cathedral city;
has a mild climate; it was founded in 1538 by the Spaniards on the site
of an old Peruvian town.


CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM, dean of St. Paul's, born in Lisbon; a
scholarly man; distinguished himself first as such by his "Essays and
Reviews," wrote thoughtful sermons, and "A Life of Anselm," also essays
on eminent men of letters, such as Dante, Spenser, and Bacon (1815-1890).


CHURCH, STATES OF THE, the Papal States, extending irregularly from
the Po to Naples, of which the Pope was the temporal sovereign, now part
of the kingdom of Italy.


CHURCHILL, CHARLES, an English poet, born at Westminster; began life
as a curate, an office which he was compelled to resign from his unseemly
ways; took himself to the satire, first of the actors of the time in his
"Rosciad," then of his critics in his "Apology," and then of Dr. Johnson
in the "Ghost"; he wrote numerous satires, all vigorous, his happiest
being deemed that against the Scotch, entitled "The Prophecy of Famine";
his life was a short one, and not wisely regulated (1731-1764).


CHURCHILL, LORD RANDOLPH, an English Conservative politician, third
son of the 7th Duke of Marlborough, who, though a man of mark, and more
than once in office, could never heart and soul join any party and settle
down to steady statesmanship; set out on travel, took ill on the journey,
and came home in a state of collapse to die (1849-1895).


CHUZZLEWIT, MARTIN, the hero of a novel by Dickens of the name.
JAMES, a character in the same novel, a man distinguished for his
mean and tyrannical character.


CHUSAN (30 or 40), principal island in the Chusan Archipelago, 18 m.
long and 10 broad; near the estuary of the Yangtse-kiang, has been called
"the Key of China."


CHYLE, a fluid of a milky colour, separated from the chyme by the
action of the pancreatic juice and the bile, and which, being absorbed by
the lacteal vessels, is gradually assimilated into blood.


CHYME, the pulpy mass into which the food is converted in the
stomach prior to the separation in the small intestines of the chyle.


CIALDINI, ENRICO, an Italian general and politician, born at Modena;
distinguished himself in Spain against the Carlists, and both as a
soldier and diplomatist in connection with the unification of Italy
(1811-1892).


CIBBER, COLLEY, actor and dramatist, of German descent; was manager
and part-proprietor of Drury Lane; wrote plays, one in particular, which
procured for him the post of poet-laureate, which he held till his death;
was much depreciated by Pope; wrote an "Apology for his Life," the most
amusing autobiography in the language (1671-1757).


CIBRARIO, LUIGI, an Italian historian and statesman, born at Turin;
he held office under Charles Albert of Sardinia (1802-1870).


CICERO, MARCUS TULLIUS, a Roman orator, statesman, and man of
letters, born near Arpinum, in Latium; trained for political life partly
at Rome and partly at Athens; distinguished himself as the first orator
at the Roman bar when he was 30, and afterwards rose through the
successive grades of civic rank till he attained the consulship in 63
B.C.; during this period he acquired great popularity by his exposure and
defeat of the conspiracy of Catiline, by which he earned the title of
_Father of his Country_, though there were those who condemned his action
and procured his banishment for a time; on his recall, which was
unanimous, he took sides first with Pompey, then with Caesar after
Pharsalia, on whose death he delivered a Philippic against Antony; was
proscribed by the second triumvirate, and put to death by Antony's
soldiers; he was the foremost of Roman orators, the most elegant writer
of the Latin language, and has left behind him orations, letters, and
treatises, very models of their kind; he was not a deep thinker, and his
philosophy was more eclectic than original (100-43 B.C.).


CICERO OF GERMANY, John III., Elector of Brandenburg, "could speak
'four hours at a stretch, in elegantly flowing Latin,' with a fair share
of meaning in it too" (1455-1499).


CICOGNARA, COUNT, an Italian writer, born at Ferrara; author of a
"History of Sculpture" (1767-1834).


CID CAMPEADOR, a famed Castilian warrior of the 11th century, born
at Burgos; much celebrated in Spanish romance; being banished from
Castile, in the interest of which he had fought valiantly, he became a
free-lance, fighting now with the Christians and now with the Moors, till
he made himself master of Valencia, where he set up his throne and
reigned, with his faithful wife Ximena by his side, till the news of a
defeat by the Moors took all spirit out of him, and he died of grief.
Faithful after death, his wife had his body embalmed and carried to his
native place, on the high altar of which it lay enthroned for 10 years;
his real name was Don Rodrigo Diaz of Bivar, and the story of his love
for Ximena is the subject of Corneille's masterpiece, "The Cid."


CIGOLI, a Florentine painter, called the Florentine Correggio, whom
he specially studied in the practice of his art; "The Apostle Healing the
Lame," in St. Peter's, is by him, as also the "Martyrdom of St. Stephen,"
in Florence (1559-1613).


CILICIA, an ancient province in S. of Asia Minor.


CILICIAN GATES, the pass across Mount Taurus by which Alexander the
Great entered Cilicia.


CIMABU`E, a Florentine painter, and founder of the Florentine
school, which ranked among its members such artists as Michael Angelo,
Raphael, and Leonardo da Vinci; was the first to leave the stiff
traditional Byzantine forms of art and copy from nature and the living
model, though it was only with the advent of his great disciple Giotto
that art found beauty in reality, and Florence was made to see the divine
significance of lowly human worth, at sight of which, says Ruskin, "all
Italy threw up its cap"; his "Madonna," in the Church of Santa Maria, has
been long regarded as a marvel of art, and of all the "Mater Dolorosas"
of Christianity, Ruskin does not hesitate to pronounce his at Assisi the
noblest; "he was the first," says Ruskin, "of the Florentines, first of
European men, to see the face of her who was blessed among women, and
with his following hand to make visible the Magnificat of his heart"
(1240-1302).


CIMAROSA, DOMENICO, a celebrated Italian composer; composed between
20 and 30 operas, mostly comic, his masterpiece being "II Matrimoneo
Segreto"; he was imprisoned for sympathising with the principles of the
French Revolution, and treated with a severity which shortened his life;
said by some to have been poisoned by order of Queen Caroline of Naples
(1754-1801).


CIMBER, a friend of Caesar's who turned traitor, whose act of
presenting a petition to him was the signal to the conspirators to take
his life.


CIMBRI, a barbarian horde who, with the Teutons, invaded Gaul in the
2nd century B.C.; gave the Romans no small trouble, and were all but
exterminated by Marius in 101 B.C.; believed to have been a Celtic race,
who descended on Southern Europe from the N.


CIMERIANS, an ancient people N. of the shores of the Black Sea,
fabled to inhabit a region unvisited by a single ray of the sun.


CIMON, an Athenian general, son of Miltiades; distinguished himself
in the struggle of Athens against Persia in 466 B.C.; gained two
victories over the Persians in one day, one by land and another by sea,
was banished by the democratic party, and after four years recalled to
continue his victories over his old foes, and died at Cyprus
(510-449 B.C.).


CINCINNATI (326), the metropolis of Ohio, stands on the Ohio River,
opposite Covington and Newport, by rail 270 m. SE. of Chicago; the city
stands on hilly ground, and is broken and irregular; there are many fine
buildings, among them a Roman Catholic cathedral, and large parks; there
is a university, the Lane Theological Seminary (Presbyterian), schools of
medicine, law, music, and art, an observatory, zoological garden, and
large libraries; it is a centre of culture in the arts; manufactures
include clothing, tobacco, leather, moulding and machine shops; there is
some boat-building and printing; but the most noted trade is in pork and
grain; is the greatest pork market in the world; a third of the
population is of German origin.


CINCINNATUS, LUCIUS QUINCTIUS, an old hero of the Roman republic,
distinguished for the simplicity and austerity of his manners; was consul
in 460 B.C., and on the defeat of a Roman army by the AEqui, called to
the dictatorship from the plough, to which he returned on the defeat of
the AEqui; he was summoned to fill the same post a second time, when he
was 80, on the occasion of the conspiracy of Maelius, with the like
success.


CINCINNATUS, THE ORDER OF, an American order founded by officers of
the revolutionary army at its dissolution in 1753; was denounced by
Franklin as anti-republican in its spirit and tendency; it still survives
in a feeble way; the order is hereditary.


CINCINNATUS OF THE AMERICANS, George Washington.


CINDERELLA (the little cinder-girl), the youngest member of a family
who must drudge at home while her elder sisters go to balls, till one day
a fairy befriends her and conveys her to a ball, where she shines as the
centre of attraction, and wins the regard of a prince. On quitting the
hall she leaves a slipper behind her, by means of which she is identified
by the prince, who finds that hers is the only foot that the slipper will
fit, and marries her. The story in one version or another is a very
ancient and wide-spread one.


CINEAS, the minister of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus; was the ablest
orator of his time, and his master was in the habit of saying of him,
that his eloquence had gained him more cities than his own arms; sent on
a mission to Rome, the senate refused to hear him, lest his eloquence
should prove too fascinating.


CINGALESE, a native of Ceylon.


CINNA, LUCIUS CORNELIUS, a Roman patrician, a friend and supporter
of Marius; drove Sulla from Rome and recalled Marius from exile;
participated in the murders which followed his recall, and after the
death of Marius was assassinated when organising an expedition against
Sulla, 84 B.C.


CINNABAR, a sulphide of mercury from which the mercury of commerce
is obtained.


CINQ-MARS, HENRI, MARQUIS DE, a French courtier, a favourite of
Louis XIII.; a man of handsome figure and fascinating manners; died on
the scaffold for conspiring with his friend De Thou against Richelieu
(1620-1642).


CINQUE CENTO (lit. five hundred), the Renaissance in literature
and art in the 16th century, the expression 5 hundred standing for 15
hundred.


CINQUE PORTS, the five ports of Hastings, Romney, Hythe, Dover, and
Sandwich, to which were added Winchelsea and Rye, which possessed certain
privileges in return for supplying the royal power with a navy; the Lord
Warden of the Cinque Ports is only an honorary dignity.


CINTRA, a Portuguese town, 17 m. NW. of Lisbon, where a much
reprobated convention between the French under Marshal Junot and the
English under Sir Hew Dalrymple was signed in 1808, whereby the former
were let off with all their arms and baggage on condition of evacuating
Portugal.


CIPANGO, an island on the Eastern Ocean, described by Marco Polo as
a sort of El Dorado, an object of search to subsequent navigators, and an
attraction among the number to Columbus, it is said.


CIPRIANI, an Italian painter and etcher, born in Florence; settled
in London; was an original member of the Royal Academy, and designed the
diploma (1727-1785).


CIRCARS, THE, a territory in India along the coast of the Bay of
Bengal, from 18 to 100 m. wide; ceded first to the French and in 1766 to
the East India Company, now of course under the Crown, and forming part
of the Madras Presidency.


CIRCASSIA, a territory on the Western Caucasus, now subject to
Russia; celebrated for the sturdy spirit of the men and the beauty of the
women; the nobles professing Mohammedanism and the lower classes a
certain impure form of Christianity; they are of the Semite race, and
resemble the Arabs in their manners.


CIRCE, a sorceress who figures in the "Odyssey." Ulysses having
landed on her isle, she administered a potion to him and his companions,
which turned them into swine, while the effect of it on himself was
counteracted by the use of the herb moly, provided for him by Hermes
against sorcery; she detained him with her for years, and disenchanted
his companions on his departure.


CIRCEAN POISON, a draught of any kind that is magically and fatally
infatuating, such as the effect often of popular applause.


CIRCUITS, districts outside of London into which England is divided
for judicial purposes, for the trial of civil as well as criminal cases
connected with them; are seven in number--the Midland, the Oxford, the
North-Eastern, the South-Eastern, the Northern, the Western, and North
Wales and South Wales; the courts are presided over by a judge sent from
London, or by two, and are held twice a year, or oftener if the number of
cases require it.


CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD, the course of the blood from the heart
through the arteries to the minute vessels of the body, and from these
last through the veins back to the heart again.


CIRCUMCISION, the practice of cutting away the foreskin, chiefly of
males, as observed by the Jews and the Mohammedans, as well as other
nations of remote antiquity; regarded by some as a mark of belonging to
the tribe, and by others as a sacrifice in propitiation by blood.


CIRCUMLOCUTION OFFICE, a name employed by Dickens in "Little Dorrit"
to designate the wearisome routine of public business.


CISALPINE GAUL, territory occupied by Gauls on the Italian or south
side of the Alps.


CISALPINE REPUBLIC, a republic so called on both sides of the Po,
formed out of his conquests by Napoleon, 1797; became the Italian
Republic in 1802, with Milan for capital, and ceased to exist after the
fall of Napoleon.


CISLEITHANIA, Austria proper as distinguished from Hungary, which is
called Transleithania, on account of the boundary between them being
formed by the river Leitha.


CISTERCIANS, a monastic order founded by Abbot Robert in 1098 at
Citeaux, near Dijon; they followed the rule of St. Benedict, who reformed
the Order after it had lapsed; became an ecclesiastical republic, and
were exempt from ecclesiastical control; contributed considerably to the
progress of the arts, if little to the sciences.


CITHAERON, a wood-covered mountain on the borders of Boeotia and
Attica; famous in Greek legend.


CITIES OF REFUGE, among the Jews; three on the E. and three on the
W. of the Jordan, in which the manslayer might find refuge from the
avenger of blood.


CITIES OF THE PLAIN, Sodom and Gomorrah, with adjoining cities under
the like doom.


CITIZEN KING, Louis Philippe of France, so called as elected by the
citizens of Paris.


CITY OF BELLS, Strasburg.


CITY OF CHURCHES, Brooklyn, now incorporated with New York.


CITY OF DESTRUCTION, Bunyan's name for the world as under divine
judgment.


CITY OF GOD, Augustine's name for the Church as distinct from the
cities of the world, and the title of a book of his defining it.


CITY OF PALACES, Calcutta and Rome.


CITY OF THE PROPHET, Medina, where Mahomet found refuge when driven
out of Mecca by the Koreish and their adherents.


CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS, Rome, as built on seven hills--viz., the
Aventine, Coelian, Capitoline, Esquiline, Palatine, Quirinal, and
Viminal.


CITY OF THE SUN, BAALBEK (q. v.); and a work by Campanella,
describing an ideal republic, after the manner of Plato and Sir Thomas
More.


CITY OF THE VIOLET CROWN, Athens.


CIUDAD REAL (royal city) (13), a Spanish town in a province of the
same name, 105 m. S. of Madrid, where Sebastian defeated the Spaniards in
1809.


CIUDAD RODRIGO (8), a Spanish town near the Portuguese frontier, 50
m. SW. of Salamanca; stormed by Wellington, after a siege of 11 days, in
1812, for which brilliant achievement he earned the title of Earl in
England, and Duke of Ciudad Rodrigo in Spain.


CIVA, or SIVA, the third member of the Hindu Trinity, the
destroyer of what Vishnu is the preserver and Brahma is the creator, is
properly Brahma undoing what he has made with a view to reincarnation.


CIVIL LAW, a system of laws for the regulation of civilised
communities formed on Roman laws, digested in the pandects of Justinian.


CIVIL LIST, the yearly sum granted by the Parliament of England at
the commencement of each reign for the support of the royal household,
and to maintain the dignity of the Crown: it amounts now to L385,000.


CIVIL SERVICE, the paid service done to the State, exclusive of that
of the army and navy.


CIVILIS, CLAUDIUS, a Batavian chief who revolted against Vespasian,
but on defeat was able to conclude an honourable peace.


CIVITA VECCHIA (11), a fortified port on the W. coast of Italy, 40
m. NW. of Rome, with a good harbour, founded by Trajan; exports wheat,
alum, cheese, &c.


CLACKMANNANSHIRE (28), the smallest county in Scotland, lies between
the Ochils and the Forth; rich in minerals, especially coal.


CLAIR, ST., a lake 30 m. long by 12 broad, connecting Lake Erie with
Lake Huron.


CLAIRAUT, ALEXIS CLAUDE, a French mathematician and astronomer, born
at Paris, of so precocious a genius, that he was admitted to the Academy
of Sciences at the age of 18; published a theory of the figure of the
earth, and computed the orbit of Halley's comet (1713-1765).


CLAIRVAUX, a village of France, on the Aube, where St. Bernard
founded a Cistercian monastery in 1115, and where he lived and was
buried; now used as a prison or reformatory.


CLAIRVOYANCE, the power ascribed to certain persons in a mesmeric
state of seeing and describing events at a distance or otherwise
invisible.


CLAN, a tribe of blood relations descended from a common ancestor,
ranged under a chief in direct descent from him, and having a common
surname, as in the Highlands of Scotland; at bottom a military
organisation for defensive and predatory purposes.


CLAN-NA-GAEL, a Fenian organisation founded at Philadelphia in 1870,
to secure by violence the complete emancipation of Ireland from British
control.


CLAPHAM, a SW. suburb of London, in the county of Surrey, 4 m. from
St. Paul's, and inhabited by a well-to-do middle-class community,
originally of evangelical principles, and characterised as the _Clapham
Set_.


CLAPPERTON, CAPTAIN HUGH, an African explorer, born at Annan; bred
in the navy, joined two expeditions into Central Africa to ascertain the
length and course of the Niger, but got no farther than Sokoto, where he
was attacked with dysentery and died (1788-1827).


CLAeRCHEN, a female character in Goethe's "Egmont."


CLARE (124), a county in Munster, Ireland; also an island at the
mouth of Clew Bay, county Mayo.


CLARE, JOHN, the peasant poet of Northamptonshire, born near
Peterborough; wrote "Poems Descriptive of Rural Life and Scenery," which
attracted attention, and even admiration, and at length with others
brought him a small annuity, which he wasted in speculation; fell into
despondency, and died in a lunatic asylum (1793-1864).


CLARE, ST., a virgin and abbess, born at Assisi; the founder of the
Order of Poor Clares (1193-1253). Festival, Aug. 12.


CLAREMONT, a mansion in Surrey, 14 m. SW. of London, built by Lord
Clive, where Princess Charlotte lived and died, as also Louis Philippe
after his flight from France; is now the property of the Queen, and the
residence of the Duchess of Albany.


CLARENCE, DUKE OF, brother of Edward IV.; convicted of treason, he
was condemned to death, and being allowed to choose the manner of his
death, is said to have elected to die by drowning in a butt of Malmsey
wine (1459-1478).


CLARENCEUX, or CLARENCIEUX, the provincial king-at-arms, whose
jurisdiction extends from and includes all England S. of the Trent.


CLARENDON, a place 2 m. SE. of Salisbury, where the magnates of
England, both lay and clerical, met in 1164 under Henry II. and issued a
set of ordinances, called the _Constitutions of Clarendon_, 16 in number,
to limit the power of the Church and assert the rights of the crown in
ecclesiastical affairs.


CLARENDON, EDWARD HYDE, Earl of, sat in the Short Parliament and the
Long on the popular side, but during the Civil War became a devoted
Royalist; was from 1641 one of the chief advisers of the king; on the
failure of the royal cause, took refuge first in Jersey, and then in
Holland with the Prince of Wales; contributed to the Restoration; came
back with Charles, and became Lord Chancellor; fell into disfavour, and
quitted England in 1667; died at Rouen; wrote, among other works, a
"History of the Great Rebellion," dignifiedly written, though often
carelessly, but full of graphic touches and characterisations especially
of contemporaries; it has been called an "epical composition," as showing
a sense of the central story and its unfolding. "Few historians," adds
Prof. Saintsbury, "can describe a given event with more vividness. Not
one in all the long list of the great practitioners of the art has such
skill in the personal character" (1608-1674).


CLARENDON, GEORGE VILLIERS, EARL OF, a Whig statesman; served as a
cabinet minister under Lord Melbourne, Lord John Russell twice, Lord
Aberdeen, Lord Palmerston, and Mr. Gladstone; held the office of Foreign
Secretary under the three preceding; was Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland at
the time of the potato failure, and represented Britain at the Congress
of Paris; died in harness, deeply lamented both at home and abroad
(1800-1870).


CLARETIE, JULES, a French journalist, novelist, dramatic author, and
critic, born at Limoges; has published some 40 volumes of _causeries_,
history, and fiction; appointed Director of the Theatre Francais in 1893;
_b_. 1840.


CLARISSA HARLOWE, the heroine of one of Richardson's novels,
exhibiting a female character which, as described by him, is pronounced
to be "one of the brightest triumphs in the whole range of imaginative
literature," is described by Stopford Brooke "as the pure and ideal star
of womanhood."


CLARK, SIR ANDREW, an eminent London physician, born near Cargill,
in Perthshire, much beloved, and skilful in the treatment of diseases
affecting the respiratory and digestive organs (1826-1893).


CLARK, SIR JAMES, physician to the Queen, born in Cullen; an
authority on the influence of climate on chronic and pulmonary disease
(1788-1870).


CLARK, THOMAS, chemist, born in Ayr; discovered the phosphate of
soda, and the process of softening hard water (1801-1867).


CLARKE, ADAM, a Wesleyan divine, of Irish birth; a man of
considerable scholarship, best known by his "Commentary" on the Bible;
author also of a "Bibliographical Dictionary" (1762-1832).


CLARKE, CHARLES COWDEN, a friend of Lamb, Keats, and Leigh Hunt;
celebrated for his Shakespearian learning; brought out an annotated
Shakespeare, assisted by his wife; lectured on Shakespeare characters
(1787-1877).


CLARKE, DR. SAMUEL, an English divine, scholar and disciple of
Newton, born at Norwich; author, as Boyle lecturer, of a famous
"Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God," as also independently
of "The Evidences of Natural and Revealed Religion"; as a theologian he
inclined to Arianism, and his doctrine of morality was that it was
congruity with the "eternal fitness of things" (1675-1729).


CLARKE, EDWARD DANIEL, a celebrated English traveller, born in
Sussex; visited Scandinavia, Russia, Circassia, Asia Minor, Syria,
Palestine, Egypt, and Greece; brought home 100 MSS. to enrich the library
of Cambridge, the colossal statue of the Eleusinian Ceres, and the
sarcophagus of Alexander, now in the British Museum; his "Travels" were
published in six volumes (1769-1822).


CLARKE, HENRI, Duc de Feltre, of Irish origin, French marshal, and
minister of war under Napoleon; instituted the prevotal court, a _pro re
nata_ court without appeal (1767-1818).


CLARKE, MARY COWDEN, _nee_ Novello, of Italian descent, wife of
Charles Cowden, assisted her husband in his Shakespeare studies, and
produced amid other works "Concordance to Shakespeare," a work which
occupied her 16 years (1809-1898).


CLARKE, WILLIAM GEORGE, English man of letters; Fellow of Trinity
College, Cambridge; edited the "Cambridge Shakespeare," along with Mr.
Aldis Wright (1821-1867).


CLARKSON, THOMAS, philanthropist, born in Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire;
the great English anti-slavery advocate, and who lived to see in 1833 the
final abolition in the British empire of the slavery he denounced, in
which achievement he was assisted by the powerful advocacy in Parliament
of Wilberforce (1760-1846).


CLASSIC RACES, the English horse-races at Newmarket--Derby, the
Oaks, and the St. Leger.


CLASSICS, originally, and often still, the standard authors in the
literature of Greece or Rome, now authors in any literature that
represent it at its best, when, as Goethe has it, it is "vigorous, fresh,
joyous, and healthy," as in the "Nibelungen," no less than in the
"Iliad."


CLAUDE, JEAN, a French Protestant controversial divine, a powerful
antagonist of Bossuet and other Catholic writers, allowed only 24 hours
to escape on the eve of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, though
other Protestant ministers were allowed 15 days (1619-1687).


CLAUDE LORRAINE, a great landscape painter, born in Lorraine, of
poor parents, and apprenticed to a pastry-cook; went as such to Rome;
became servant and colour-grinder to Tassi, who instructed him in his
art; by assiduous study of nature in all her aspects attained to fame;
was eminent in his treatment of aerial perspective, and an artist whom it
was Turner's ambition to rival; he was eminent as an etcher as well as a
painter; Turner left one of his finest works to the English nation on
condition that it should hang side by side of a masterpiece of Claude,
which it now does; his pictures are found in every gallery in Europe, and
a goodly number of them are to be met with in England; there are in the
St. Petersburg gallery four pieces of exquisite workmanship, entitled
"Morning," "Noon," "Evening," and "Twilight" (1600-1682).


CLAUDIAN, a Latin epic poet of the 4th century, born in Alexandria,
panegyrist of Stilicho on his victory over Alaric; a not unworthy
successor of Catullus and Propertius, though his native tongue was Greek.


CLAUDIUS, APPIUS, a Roman decemvir and patrician in 451 B.C.;
outraged Virginia, a beautiful plebeian damsel, whom her father, on
discovering of the crime, killed with a knife snatched from a butcher's
stall, rousing thereby the popular rage against the decemvir, who was
cast into prison, where he put an end to himself, 449 B.C.


CLAUDIUS, APPIUS, censor in 312-307 B.C.; wrought important changes
in the Roman constitution; set on foot the construction of the Appian Way
and the Appian Aqueduct, named after him.


CLAUDIUS I, TIBERIUS DRUSUS, surnamed GERMANICUS, brother of
Tiberius, emperor of Rome from 41 to 54, born at Lyons; after spending 50
years of his life in private, occupying himself in literary study, was,
on the death of Caligula, raised very much against his wish by the
soldiers to the imperial throne, a post which he filled with honour to
himself and benefit to the State; but he was too much controlled by his
wives, of whom he had in succession four, till the last of them,
Agrippina, had him poisoned to make way for her son Nero.


CLAUDIUS II., surnamed GOTHICUS, Roman emperor from 268 to 270;
an excellent prince and a good general; distinguished himself by his
ability and courage against the Goths and other hordes of barbarians.


CLAUSEL, BERTRAND, marshal of France, born at Mirepoix; served under
Napoleon in Holland, Italy, Austria, and Spain; was defeated at
Salamanca, executing thereafter a masterly retreat; left France for
America in 1815 on the fall of Napoleon, to whom he was devoted; returned
in 1830, became commander-in-chief in Algeria, and ultimately governor
(1772-1842).


CLAUSEWITZ, KARL VON, a Prussian general, born at Burg;
distinguished himself against Napoleon in Russia in 1812; an authority on
the art of war, on which he wrote a treatise in three volumes, entitled
"Vom Krieg" (1780-1831).


CLAUSIUS, RUDOLF, an eminent German physicist, born at Koeslin, in
Pomerania; professor of Natural Philosophy at Bonn; specially
distinguished for his contributions to the science of thermo-dynamics,
and the application of mathematical methods to the study, as also to
electricity and the expansion of gases (1822-1888).


CLAVERHOUSE, JOHN GRAHAM OF, VISCOUNT DUNDEE, commenced life as a
soldier in France and Holland; on his return to Scotland in 1677 was
appointed by Charles II. to the command of a troop to suppress the
Covenanters; was defeated at Drumclog 1679, but by the help of Monmouth
had his revenge at Bothwell Brig; affected to support the Revolution, but
intrigued in favour of the Stuarts; raised in Scotland a force in their
behalf; was met at Killiecrankie by General Mackay, where he fell
(1643-1689).


CLAVIERE, Minister of Finance in France after Necker, born at
Geneva; projector of the _Moniteur_; friend of Mirabeau; committed
suicide in prison (1735-1793).


CLAVIJE`RO, a Jesuit missionary, born in Vera Cruz; laboured for 40
years as missionary in Mexico; on the suppression of his Order went to
Italy, and wrote a valuable work on Mexico (1718-1793).


CLAVIGO, a drama by Goethe in five acts, the first work to which he
put his name; was received with disfavour.


CLAVILENO, Don Quixote's wooden horse.


CLAY, HENRY, an American statesman, born in Virginia; bred for the
bar, and distinguished for his oratory; was for many years Speaker of the
House of Representatives; was a supporter of war with Britain in 1812-15,
and party to the treaty which ended it; was an advocate of protection;
aspired three times unsuccessfully to the Presidency; his public career
was a long one, and an honourable (1777-1852).


CLEAR THE CAUSEWAY RIOTS, bickerings in the streets of Edinburgh in
1515 between the rival factions of Angus and Arran, to the utter rout of
the former, or the Douglas party.


CLEANTHES, a Stoic philosopher, born at Assos, in Troas, of the 3rd
century B.C.; wrought as a drawer of water by night that he might earn
his fee as pupil of Zeno's by day; became Zeno's successor and the head
of his school; regarded "pleasure as a remission of that moral energy of
the soul, which alone is happiness, as an interruption to life, and as an
evil, which was not in accordance with nature, and no end of nature."


CLEAR, CAPE, a headland S. of Clear Island, most southerly point of
Ireland, and the first land sighted coming from America.


CLEARCHUS, a Spartan general who accompanied Cyrus on his expedition
against Artaxerxes; commanded the retreat of the Ten Thousand; was put to
death by Tissaphernes in 401 B.C., and replaced by Xenophon.


CLEARING-HOUSE, a house for interchanging the respective claims of
banks and of railway companies.


CLEISHBOTHAM, JEDEDIAH, an imaginary editor in Scott's "Tales of My
Landlord."


CLELIA, a Roman heroine, who swam the Tiber to escape from Porsenna,
whose hostage she was; sent back by the Romans, she was set at liberty,
and other hostages along with her, out of admiration on Porsenna's part
of both her and her people.


CLEMENCEAUX, GEORGES BENJAMIN, French politician, born in La Vendee;
bred to medicine; political adversary of Gambetta; proprietor of _La
Justice_, a Paris journal; an expert swordsman; _b_. 1841.


CLEMENCET, CHARLES, a French Benedictine, born near Autun; one of
the authors of the great chronological work, "Art de Verifier les Dates,"
and wrote the history of the Port Royal (1703-1778).


CLEMENCIN, DIEGO, a Spanish statesman and litterateur; his most
important work a commentary on "Don Quixote."


CLEMENS, SAMUEL LANGHORNE, an American humorist with the pseudonym
of "Mark Twain," born at Florida, Missouri, U.S.; began his literary
career as a newspaper reporter and a lecturer; his first book "The
Jumping Frog"; visited Europe, described in the "Innocents Abroad";
married a lady of fortune; wrote largely in his peculiar humorous vein,
such as the "Tramp Abroad"; produced a drama entitled the "Gilded Age,"
and compiled the "Memoirs of General Grant"; _b_. 1835.


CLEMENS ALEXANDRINUS, one of the Greek Fathers of the Church, of the
2nd and 3rd centuries; had Origen for pupil; brought up in Greek
philosophy; converted in manhood to Christianity from finding in his
appreciation of knowledge over faith confirmations of it in his
philosophy, which he still adhered to; his "Stromata" or "Miscellanies"
contain facts and quotations found nowhere else.


CLEMENT, the name of 14 popes: C. I., Pope from 91 to 100; one
of the Apostolic Fathers; wrote an Epistle to the Church of Corinth, with
references to the Canonical books. C. II., Pope from 1046 to 1047.
C. III., pope from 1187 to 1191. C. IV., Pope from 1265 to
1268. C. V., Bertrand de Goth, Pope from 1305 to 1314; transferred
the seat of the Papacy to Avignon, and abolished the Order of the Knights
Templars. C. VI. Pope from 1342 to 1352; resided at Avignon. C.
VII., Giulio de Medici, Pope from 1523 to 1534; celebrated for his
quarrels with Charles V. and Henry VIII., was made prisoner in Rome by
the Constable of Bourbon; refused to sanction the divorce of Henry VIII.,
and brought about the schism of England from the Holy See. C. VIII., Pope
from 1592 to 1605; a patron of Tasso's; readmitted Henry IV. to the
Church and the Jesuits to France. C. IX., Pope from 1667 to 1669. C. X.,
pope from 1670 to 1676. C. XI., Pope from 1700 to 1721; as Francesco
Albani opposed the Jansenists; issued the bull _Unigenitus_ against them;
supported the Pretender and the claims of the Stuarts. C. XII., Pope from
1738 to 1740. C. XIII., Pope from 1758 to 1769. C. XIV., Pope from 1769
to 1774, Ganganelli, an able, liberal-minded, kind-hearted, and upright
man; abolished the Order of the Jesuits out of regard to the peace of the
Church; his death occurred not without suspicions of foul-play.


CLEMENT, French critic, born at Dijon, surnamed by Voltaire from his
severity the "Inclement" (1742-1812).


CLEMENT, a French manufacturer and savant, born near Dijon; author
of a memoir on the specific heat of the gases (1779-1841).


CLEMENT, JACQUES, a Dominican monk; assassinated Henry III. of
France in 1589.


CLEMENT, ST., St. Paul's coadjutor, the patron saint of tanners; his
symbol an anchor.


CLEMENTI, MUZIO, a musical composer, especially of pieces for the
pianoforte, born in Rome; was the father of pianoforte music; one of the
foremost pianists of his day; was buried in Westminster (1752-1832).


CLEMENTINE, THE LADY, a lady, accomplished and beautiful, in
Richardson's novel, "Sir Charles Grandison," in love with Sir Charles,
who marries another he has no partiality for.


CLEOBULUS, one of the seven sages of Greece; friend of Plato; wrote
lyrics and riddles in verse, 530 B.C.


CLEOM`BROTUS, a philosopher of Epirus, so fascinated with Plato's
"Phaedon" that he leapt into the sea in the expectation that he would
thereby exchange this life for a better.


CLEOME`DES, a Greek astronomer of the 1st or 2nd century; author of
a treatise which regards the sun as the centre of the solar system and
the earth as a globe.


CLEOMENES, the name of three Spartan kings.


CLEOMENES, an Athenian sculptor, who, as appears from an inscription
on the pedestal, executed the statue of the Venus de Medici towards 220
B.C.


CLEON, an Athenian demagogue, surnamed the Tanner, from his
profession, which he forsook that he might champion the rights of the
people; rose in popular esteem by his victory over the Spartans, but
being sent against Brasidas, the Spartan general, was defeated and fell
in the battle, 422 B.C.; is regarded by Thucydides with disfavour, and
by Aristophanes with contempt, but both these writers were of the
aristocracy, and possibly prejudiced, though the object of their
disfavour had many of the marks of the vulgar agitator, and stands for
the type of one.


CLEOPA`TRA, Queen of Egypt, a woman distinguished for her beauty,
her charms, and her amours; first fascinated Caesar, to whom she bore a
son, and whom she accompanied to Rome, and after Caesar's death took Mark
Antony captive, on whose fall and suicide at Actium she killed herself by
applying an asp to her arm, to escape the shame of being taken to Rome to
grace the triumph of the victor (69-30 B.C.).


CLEOPATRA'S NEEDLE, an obelisk of 186 tons weight and 681/2 ft. high,
brought from Alexandria to London in 1878, and erected on the Thames
Embankment, London.


CLERC, or LECLERC, JEAN, a French theologian of the Arminian
school, born at Geneva; a prolific author; wrote commentaries on all the
books of the Old Testament, on lines since followed by the Rationalist
school or Neologians of Germany (1657-1736).


CLERFAYT, COMTE DE, an Austrian general, distinguished in the Seven
Years' War; commanded with less success the Austrian army against the
French armies of the Revolution (1733-1798).


CLERK, JOHN, OF ELDIN, of the Penicuik family, an Edinburgh
merchant, first suggested the naval manoeuvre of "breaking the enemy's
lines," which was first successfully adopted against the French in 1782
(1728-1812).


CLERK, JOHN, son of preceding, a Scottish judge, under the title of
Lord Eldin, long remembered in Edinburgh for his wit (1757-1832).


CLERKENWELL (66), a parish in Finsbury, London, originally an
aristocratic quarter, now the centre of the manufacture of jewellery and
watches.


CLERMONT, ROBERT, COMTE DE, sixth son of St. Louis, head of the
house of Bourbon.


CLERMONT FERRAND (45), the ancient capital of Auvergne and chief
town of the dep. Puy-de-Dome; the birthplace of Pascal, Gregory of Tours,
and Dessaix, and where, in 1095, Pope Urban II. convoked a council and
decided on the first Crusade; it has been the scene of seven Church
Councils.


CLERMONT-TONNERRE, Marquis, minister of France under the Restoration
of the Bourbons (1779-1865).


CLERY, Louis XVI.'s valet, who waited on him in his last hours, and
has left an account of what he saw of his touching farewell with his
family.


CLEVELAND, a hilly district in the North Riding of Yorkshire, rich
in iron-stone.


CLEVELAND (381), the second city of Ohio, on the shores of Lake
Erie, 230 m. NE. of Cincinnati; is built on a plain considerably above
the level of the lake; the winding Cuyahoga River divides it into two
parts, and the industrial quarters are on the lower level of its banks;
the city is noted for its wealth of trees in the streets and parks, hence
called "The Forest City," and for the absence of tenement houses; it has
a university, several colleges, and two libraries; it is the terminus of
the Ohio Canal and of seven railways, and the iron ore of Lake Superior
shores, the limestone of Lake Erie Islands, and the Ohio coal are brought
together here, and every variety of iron manufacture carried on; there is
a great lumber market, and an extensive general trade.


CLEVELAND, GROVER, President of the United States, born in New
Jersey, son of a Presbyterian minister; bred for the bar; became
President in the Democratic interest in 1885; unseated for his free-trade
leaning by Senator Harrison, 1889; became the President a second time in
1893; retired in 1897.


CLEVELAND, JOHN, partisan of Charles I.; imprisoned for abetting the
Royalist cause against the Parliament, but after some time set at liberty
in consequence of a letter he wrote to Cromwell pleading that he was a
poor man, and that in his poverty he suffered enough; he was a poet, and
used his satirical faculty in a political interest, one of his satires
being an onslaught on the Scots for betraying Charles I.; _d_. 1650.


CLEVES (10), a Prussian town 46 m. NW. of Duesseldorf, once the
capital of a duchy connected by a canal with the Rhine; manufactures
textile fabrics and tobacco.


CLICHY (30), a manufacturing suburb of Paris, on the NW. and right
bank of the Seine.


CLIFFORD, GEORGE, Earl of Cumberland, a distinguished naval
commander under Queen Elizabeth, and one of her favourites (1558-1605).


CLIFFORD, JOHN, D.D., Baptist minister in London, author of "Is
Life Worth Living?" _b_. 1836.


CLIFFORD, PAUL, a highwayman, the subject of a novel by Bulwer
Lytton, who was subdued and reformed by the power of love.


CLIFTON (13), a fashionable suburb of Bristol, resorted to as a
watering-place; romantically situated on the sides and crest of high
cliffs, whence it name.


CLIMACTERIC, THE GRAND, the 63rd year of a man's life, and the
average limit of it; a climacteric being every seven years of one's life,
and reckoned critical.


CLINKER, HUMPHRY, the hero of Smollett's novel, a poor waif, reduced
to want, who attracts the notice of Mr. Bramble, marries Mrs. Bramble's
maid, and proves a natural son of Mr. Bramble.


CLINTON, GEORGE, American general and statesman; was governor of New
York; became Vice-President in 1804 (1739-1812).


CLINTON, SIR HENRY, an English general; commanded in the American
war; censured for failure in the war; wrote an exculpation, which was
accepted (1738-1795).


CLINTON, HENRY FYNES, a distinguished chronologist, author of "Fasti
Hellenici" and "Fasti Romani" (1781-1852).


CLIO, the muse of history and epic poetry, represented as seated
with a half-opened scroll in her hand.


CLISSON, OLIVIER DE, constable of France under Charles VI.;
companion in arms of Du Gueselin, and victor at Roosebeke (1326-1407).


CLISTHENES, an Athenian, uncle of Pericles, procured the expulsion
of Hippias the tyrant, 510 B.C., and the establishment of
OSTRACISM (q. v.).


CLITUS, a general of Alexander, and his friend, who saved his life
at the battle of Granicus, but whom, at a banquet, he killed when heated
with wine, to his inconsolable grief ever afterwards.


CLIVE, ROBERT, LORD CLIVE AND BARON PLASSEY, the founder of the
dominion of Britain in India, born in Shropshire; at 19 went out a clerk
in the East India Company's service, but quitted his employment in that
capacity for the army; distinguishing himself against the rajah of
Tanjore, was appointed commissary; advised an attack on Arcot, in the
Carnatic, in 1751; took it from and held it against the French, after
which, and other brilliant successes, he returned to England, and was
made lieutenant-colonel in the king's service; went out again, and
marched against the nabob Surajah Dowlah, and overthrew him at the battle
of Plassey, 1757; established the British power in Calcutta, and was
raised to the peerage; finally returned to England possessed of great
wealth, which exposed him to the accusation of having abused his power;
the accusation failed; in his grief he took to opium, and committed
suicide (1725-1774).


CLODIUS, a profligate Roman patrician; notorious as the enemy of
Cicero, whose banishment he procured; was killed by the tribune Milo, 52
B.C.


CLODOMIR, the second son of Clovis, king of Orleans from 511 to 524;
fell fighting with his rivals; his children, all but one, were put to
death by their uncles, Clotaire and Childebert.


CLOOTZ, ANACHARSIS, Baron Jean Baptiste de Clootz, a French
Revolutionary, born at Cleves; "world-citizen"; his faith that "a world
federation is possible, under all manner of customs, provided they hold
men"; his pronomen Anacharsis suggested by his resemblance to an ancient
Scythian prince who had like him a cosmopolitan spirit; was one of the
founders of the worship of Reason, and styled himself the "orator of the
human race"; distinguished himself at the great Federation, celebrated
on the Champ de Mars, by entering the hall on the great Federation Day,
June 19, 1790, "with the human species at his heels"; was guillotined
under protest in the name of the human race (1755-1794).


CLORINDA, a female Saracen knight sent against the Crusaders, whom
Tancred fell in love with, but slew on an encounter at night; before
expiring she received Christian baptism at his hands.


CLOTAIRE I., son and successor of Clovis, king of the Franks from
558; cruel and sanguinary; along with Childebert murdered the sons of his
brother Clodomir. C. II., son of Chilperic and Fredigonda, king of
the Franks from 613 to 628; caused Brunhilda to be torn in pieces. C.
III., son of Clovis II., King of Neustria and Burgundy from 656 to
670. C. IV., king of ditto from 717 to 720.


CLOTHES, Carlyle's name in "Sartor Resartus" for the guises which
the spirit, especially of man, weaves for itself and wears, and by which
it both conceals itself in shame and reveals itself in grace.


CLOTHO, that one of the three Fates which spins the thread of human
destiny.


CLOTILDA, ST., the wife of Clovis I.; persuaded her husband to
profess Christianity; retired into a monastery at Tours when he died
(475-545). Festival, June 3.


CLOUD, ST., the patron saint of smiths.


CLOUD, ST., or CLODOALD, third son of Clodomir, who escaped the
fate of his brothers, and retired from the world to a spot on the left
bank of the Seine, 6 m. SW. of Paris, named St. Cloud after him.


CLOUDS, THE, the play in which Aristophanes exposes Socrates to
ridicule.


CLOUGH, ARTHUR HUGH, a lyric poet, born at Liverpool; son of a
cotton merchant; educated at Rugby under Dr. Arnold, whom he held in the
highest regard; was at Oxford, as a Fellow of Oriel, at the time of the
Tractarian movement, which he arrayed himself against, and at length
turned his back upon and tore himself away from by foreign travel; on his
return he was appointed examiner in the Education Office; falling ill
from overwork he went abroad again, and died at Florence; he was all
alive to the tendencies of the time, and his lyrics show his sense of
these, and how he fronted them; in the speculative scepticism of the time
his only refuge and safety-anchor was duty; Matthew Arnold has written in
his "Thyrsis" a tribute to his memory such as has been written over few;
his best-known poem is "The Bothie of Tober-na-Vuolich" (1819-1861).


CLOVIS I., king of the Franks, son of Childeric I.; conquered
the Romans at Soissons 486, which he made his centre; married
CLOTILDA (q. v.) 493; beat the Germans near Cologne 496, by
assistance, as he believed, of the God of Clotilda, after which he was
baptized by St. Remi at Rheims; and overthrew the Visigoths under Alaric
II. near Poitiers in 507, after which victories he made Paris his
capital. C. II., son of Dagobert; was king of Neustria and Burgundy
from 638 to 656. C. ILL, son of Thierry III., and king of ditto from
691 to 695, and had Pepin d'Heristal for mayor of the palace.


CLUNY (3), a town in the dep. of Saone-et-Loire, on an affluent of
the Saone; renowned in the Middle Ages for its Benedictine abbey, founded
in 910, and the most celebrated in Europe, having been the mother
establishment of 2000 others of the like elsewhere; in ecclesiastical
importance it stood second to Rome, and its abbey church second to none
prior to the erection of St. Peter's; a great normal school was
established here in 1865.


CLUSIUM, the ancient capital of Etruria and Porsenna's.


CLUTHA, the largest river in New Zealand, in Otago, very deep and
rapid, and 200 m. long.


CLUTTERBUCK, the imaginary author of the "Fortunes of Nigel," and
the patron to whom the "Abbot" is dedicated.


CLYDE, a river in the W. of Scotland which falls into a large inlet
or firth, as it is called, the commerce on which extends over the world,
and on the banks of which are shipbuilding yards second to none in any
other country; it is deepened as far as Glasgow for ships of a heavy
tonnage.


CLYDE, LORD. See CAMPBELL, COLIN.


CLYTEMNESTRA, the wife of Agamemnon, and the mother of Iphigenia,
Electra, and Orestes; killed her husband, and was killed by her son,
Orestes, seven years after.


CLYTIE, a nymph in love with Apollo, god of the sun, who did not
respond to her; but, with all the passion he durst show to her, turned
her into a sunflower.


COANZA, a W. African river, which rises in the Mossamba Mountains,
falling into the sea after a course of 600 m.; owing to falls is
navigable for only 140 m. from its mouth.


COAST RANGE, a range in the U.S., W. of the Sierra Nevada, parallel
to it, with the Sacramento Valley between.


COBBETT, WILLIAM, a political and miscellaneous writer, born at
Farnham, Sussex; commenced life as a farm labourer, and then as copying
clerk; enlisted, and saw seven years' service in Nova Scotia; being
discharged, travelled in France and America; on his return started the
_Weekly Register_, at first Tory, then Radical; published a libel against
the Government, for which he was imprisoned; on his release issued his
_Register_ at a low price, to the immense increase of its circulation;
vain attempts were made to crush him, against which he never ceased to
protest; after the passing of the Reform Bill he got into Parliament, but
made no mark; his writings were numerous, and include his "Grammar," his
"Cottage Economy," his "Rural Rides," and his "Advice to Young Men"; his
political opinions were extreme, but his English was admirable
(1762-1835).


COBBLER POET, HANS SACHS (q. v.).


COBDEN, RICHARD, a great political economist and the Apostle of Free
Trade, born near Midhurst, Sussex; became partner in a cotton-trading
firm in Manchester; made a tour on the Continent and America in the
interest of political economy; on the formation of the Corn-Law League in
1838, gave himself heart and soul to the abolition of the Corn Laws;
became Member of Parliament for Stockport in 1841; on the conversion of
Sir Robert Peel to Free-Trade principles saw these laws abolished in
1846; for his services in this cause he received the homage of his
country as well as of Continental nations, but refused all civic honours,
and finished his political career by negotiating a commercial treaty with
France (1804-1865).


COBENTZELL, COMTE DE, an Austrian diplomatist, born at Brussels;
negotiated the treaties of Campo Formio and Luneville; founded the
Academy of Sciences at Brussels (1753-1808).


COBLENZ (32), a fortified city, manufacturing and trading town, in
Prussia, at the junction of the Rhine and the Moselle, so called as at
the confluence of the two; opposite it is Ehrenbreitstein.


COBURG (18), capital of the duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, on the Itz,
the old castle on a height 500 ft. above the town; gave shelter to
Luther in 1530, and was besieged by Wallenstein.


COBURG, field-marshal of Austria; vanquished Dumouriez at
Neerwinden; was conquered by Moreau and Jourdan (1737-1815).


COCAINE, an alkaloid from the leaf of the coca plant, used as an
anaesthetic.


COCCEIUS, or KOCH, JOHANN, a Dutch divine, professor at Leyden;
held that the Old Testament was a type or foreshadow of the New, and was
the founder of the federal theology, or the doctrine that God entered
into a threefold compact with man, first prior to the law, second under
the law, and third under grace (1603-1669).


COCCEJI, HENRY, learned German jurist, born at Bremen; an authority
on civil law; was professor of law at Frankfurt (1644-1719).


COCCEJI, SAMUEL, son of the preceding; Minister of Justice and
Chancellor of Prussia under Frederick the Great; a prince of lawyers, and
"a very Hercules in cleansing law stables" as law-reformer (1679-1755).


COCHABAMBA (14), a high-lying city of Bolivia, capital of a
department of the name; has a trade in grain and fruits.


COCHIN (722), a native state in India N. of Travancore, cooped up
between W. Ghats and the Arabian Sea, with a capital of the same name,
where Vasco da Gama died; the first Christian church in India was built
here, and there is here a colony of black Jews.


COCHIN-CHINA (2,034), the region E. of the Mekong, or Annam proper,
called HIGH COCHIN-CHINA (capital Hue), and LOW COCHIN-CHINA, a
State S. of Indo-China, and S. of Cambodia and Annam; belonging to
France, with an unhealthy climate; rice the chief crop; grows also teak,
cotton, &c.; capital Saigon.


COCHLAEUS, JOHANN, an able and bitter antagonist of Luther's; _d_.
1592.


COCHRANE, the name of several English naval officers of the
Dundonald family; SIR ALEXANDER FORRESTER INGLIS (1758-1832); SIR
THOMAS JOHN, his son (1798-1872); and THOMAS, LORD. See
DUNDONALD.


COCK LANE GHOST, a ghost which was reported in a lane of the name in
Smithfield, London, in 1762, to the excitement of the public, due to a
girl rapping on a board in bed.


COCKAIGNE, an imaginary land of idleness and luxury, from a
satirical poem of that name (_coquina_, a kitchen), where the monks live
in an abbey built of pasties, the rivers run with wine, and the geese fly
through the air ready roasted. The name has been applied to London and
Paris.


COCKATRICE, a monster with the wings of a fowl, the tail of a
dragon, and the head of a cock; alleged to have been hatched by a serpent
from a cock's egg; its breath and its fatal look are in mediaeval art the
emblem of sin.


COCKBURN, SIR ALEXANDER, Lord Chief-Justice of England from 1859;
called to the bar in 1829; became Liberal member for Southampton in 1847,
and Solicitor-General in 1850; was prosecutor in the Palmer case, judge
in the Tichborne, and an arbitrator in the _Alabama_ (1802-1880).


COCKBURN, ALISON, author of "Flowers of the Forest"; in her day the
leader of Edinburgh society; was acquainted with Burns, and recognised in
his boyhood the genius of Scott (1713-1795).


COCKBURN, SIR GEORGE, an English admiral, born in London; rose by
rapid stages to be captain of a frigate; took an active part in the
expedition to the Scheldt, in the defence of Cadiz, and of the coast of
Spain; was second in command of the expedition against the United States;
returned to England in 1815, and was selected to convey Napoleon to St.
Helena (1771-1853).


COCKBURN, HENRY, LORD, an eminent Scotch judge, born in Edinburgh;
called to the bar in 1800; one of the first contributors to the
_Edinburgh Review_; was Solicitor-General for Scotland in 1830, and
appointed a judge four years after; was a friend and colleague of Lord
Jeffrey; wrote Jeffrey's Life, and left "Memorials of His Own Time" and
"Journals"; he was a man of refined tastes, shrewd common-sense, quiet
humour, and a great lover of his native city and its memories; described
by Carlyle as "a bright, cheery-voiced, hazel-eyed man; a Scotch dialect
with plenty of good logic in it, and of practical sagacity; a gentleman,
and perfectly in the Scotch type, perhaps the very last of that peculiar
species" (1779-1854).


COCKER, EDWARD, an arithmetician, and a schoolmaster by profession;
wrote an arithmetic, published after his death, long the text-book on the
subject, and a model of its kind; gave rise to the phrase "according to
Cocker" (1631-1672).


COCKNEY, a word of uncertain derivation, but meaning one born and
bred in London, and knowing little or nothing beyond it, and betraying
his limits by his ideas, manners, and accent.


COCKNEY SCHOOL, a literary school, so called by Lockhart, as
inspired with the idea that London is the centre of civilisation, and
including Leigh Hunt, Hazlitt, and others.


COCKPIT OF EUROPE, Belgium, as the scene of so many battles between
the Powers of Europe.


COCKTON, HENRY, a novelist, born in London, author of "Valentine
Vox" (1807-1853).


COCLES, HORATIUS, a Roman who defended a bridge against the army of
Porsenna till the bridge was cut down behind him, when he leapt into the
river and swam across scatheless amid the darts of the enemy.


COCOS ISLANDS, a group of 20 small coral islands about 700 m. SW. of
Sumatra.


COCYTUS, a dark river which environed Tartarus with bitter and muddy
waters.


CODRINGTON, SIR EDWARD, a British admiral; entered the navy at 13;
served under Howe at Brest, in the capacity of captain of the _Orion_ at
Trafalgar, in the Walcheren expedition, in North America, and at Navarino
in 1827, when the Turkish fleet was destroyed; served also in Parliament
from 1832 to 1839, when he was appointed Commander-in-Chief at Portsmouth
(1770-1851).


CODRINGTON, SIR WILLIAM JOHN, a British general; served in the
Crimean war, and Commander-in-Chief after the death of General Simpson
(1800-1884).


CODRUS, the last king of Athens; sacrificed his life to fulfil an
oracle, which promised victory to the side whose king fell in an
engagement between the Athenians and Dorians in 1132 B.C.


COEHOORN, BARON VAN, a Dutch military engineer; fortified Namur, and
defended it against Vauban; was successful in besieging many towns during
the war of the Spanish Succession; author of a treatise on fortification
(1641-1704).


COELEBS (a bachelor), the title of a novel by Hannah More.


COELE-SYRIA (the Howe of Syria), or EL BUKA'A, a valley between
the Lebanons, about 100 m. long by 10 m. broad.


COELIAN, one of the seven hills of Rome, S. of the Capitoline.


COELLO, the name of two Spanish painters in the 16th and 17th
centuries, whose works are in the Escurial.


COEUR, JACQUES, a rich merchant of Bourges, financier to Charles
VII., for whom he provided the sinews of war against the English, but who
banished him at the instigation of detractors; he was reinstated under
Louis XI. (1400-1456).


COEUR DE LION (lion-hearted), a surname on account of their courage
given to Richard I. of England (1151), Louis VIII. of France (1181), and
Boselas I. of Poland (960).


COGITO, ERGO SUM, "I think, therefore I am." Descartes' principle of
certainty, and on which, as on a stable basis, he reared his whole
philosophy. See DESCARTES. "Alas, poor cogitator," Carlyle
exclaims, "this takes us but a little way. Sure enough, I am; and lately
was not; but Whence? How? Whereto?"


COGNAC (17), a French town in the dep. of Charente, birthplace of
Francis I.; famous for its vines and the manufacture of brandy.


COGNIET, a French painter, author of "Tintoret painting his Dead
Daughter" (1794-1880).


COILA, a poetic name for Kyle, the central district of Ayrshire.


COIMBATORE (46), a town of strategic importance in the Madras
Presidency, 30 m. SW. of Madras, situated in a gorge of the Ghats, 1437
ft. above the sea-level, in a district (2,004) of the same name.


COIMBRA (14), a rainy town in Portugal, of historical interest, 110
m. NNE. of Lisbon, with a celebrated university, in which George Buchanan
was a professor, where he was accused of heresy and thrown into prison,
and where he translated the Psalms into Latin.


COKE, coal with a residue of carbon and earthy matter after the
volatile constituents are driven off by heat in closed spaces.


COKE, SIR EDWARD, Lord Chief-Justice of England, born at Milcham,
Norfolk; being a learned lawyer, rose rapidly at the bar and in offices
connected therewith; became Lord Chief-Justice in 1613; was deposed in
1617 for opposing the king's wishes; sat in his first and third
Parliaments, and took a leading part in drawing up the Petition of
Rights; spent the last three years of his life in revising his works, his
"Institutes," known as "Coke upon Littleton," and his valuable "Reports"
(1549-1634).


COLBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE, a French statesman, of Scotch descent, born
in Rheims, the son of a clothier; introduced to Louis XIV. by Mazarin,
then first minister; he was appointed Controller-General of the Finances
after the fall of Fouquet, and by degrees made his influence felt in all
the departments of State affairs; he favoured, by protectionist
measures--free trade not yet being heard of--French industry and
commerce; was to the French marine what Louvois was to the army, and
encouraged both arts and letters; from 1671 his influence began to
decline; he was held responsible for increased taxation due to Louis
XIV.'s wars, while the jealousy of Louvois weakened his credit at Court;
he became so unpopular that on his death his body was buried at night,
but a grateful posterity has recognised his services, and done homage to
his memory as one of the greatest ministers France ever had (1619-1683).


COLBURN, ZERAH, an American youth, with an astonishing power of
calculation, born in Vermont, and exhibited as such, a faculty which he
lost when he grew up to manhood (1804-1840).


COLCHESTER (35), the largest town in Essex, 51 m. from London, on
the right bank of the Colne, of great antiquity, and with Roman remains;
has been long famous for its oyster fishery; has silk manufactures; is
the port of outlet of a large corn-growing district.


COLCHESTER, CHARLES ABBOT, LORD, English statesman; sometime Chief
Secretary of Ireland, and Speaker of the House of Commons; raised to the
peerage in response to an address of the House of Commons (1757-1829).


COLCHIS, a district on the E. of the Black Sea, and S. of Caucasus,
where the Argonauts, according to Greek tradition, found and conquered
the Golden Fleece; the natives had a reputation for witchcraft and
sorcery.


COLDSTREAM GUARDS, one of the three regiments of Foot Guards; was
raised by General Monk in Scotland in 1660, and marched under him from
Coldstream to place Charles II. on the throne; originally called Monk's
regiment.


COLE, HENRY an English ecclesiastical zealot, who held handsome
preferments under Henry VIII. and Mary, but was stripped of them under
Edward VI. and Elizabeth.


COLE, KING, a legendary jovial British king, celebrated in song.


COLEBROOKE, HENRY THOMAS, a celebrated Indianist, born in London;
served under the East India Company, and devoted his spare time to Indian
literature; studied the Sanskrit language, wrote on the Vedas, translated
the "Digest of Hindu Law" compiled by Sir William Jones, compiled a
Sanskrit Dictionary, and wrote various treatises on the law and
philosophy of the Hindus; he was one of the first scholars in Europe to
reveal the treasures that lay hid in the literature of the East
(1765-1837).


COLENSO, DR., an English clergyman and mathematician; was appointed
bishop of Natal in 1845; applied himself to the study of the Zulu
language, and translated parts of the Bible and Prayer-book into it;
calling in question the accuracy and Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch,
was deposed by his metropolitan, which deposition was declared null and
void by the Privy Council; besides his theological work, produced
text-books on arithmetic and algebra; died at Durban, Natal; he favoured
the cause of the Zulus against the Boers, and did his utmost to avert the
Zulu war (1814-1883).


COLERIDGE, HARTLEY, an English man of letters, eldest son of Samuel
Taylor Coleridge, born at Clevedon, Somerset; lived with his father in
the Lake District, and grew up in the society of Wordsworth, De Quincey,
and others; gained a Fellowship at Oxford, but forfeited it through
intemperance; tried school-mastering at Ambleside, but failed, and took
to literature, in which he did some excellent work, both in prose and
poetry, though he led all along a very irregular life; had his father's
weaknesses, and not a little of his ability; his best memorials as a poet
are his sonnets, of which two have been especially admired, "The Soul of
Man is Larger than the Sky," and "When I Survey the Course I have Run"
(1796-1849).


COLERIDGE, HENRY NELSON, nephew of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and a
great admirer; editor of many of his works, his "Table Talk" in especial
(1800-1843).


COLERIDGE, JOHN DUKE, LORD, an English lawyer, cousin of Hartley
Coleridge; after serving in inferior appointments, appointed Lord
Chief-Justice of England in 1880; when at the bar he was prominent in
connection with Tichborne case.


COLERIDGE, SIR JOHN TAYLOR, an English judge, nephew of Samuel
Taylor Coleridge; was editor of the _Quarterly_, edited "Blackstone,"
&c.; wrote a "Memoir of the Rev. John Keble" (1790-1876).


COLERIDGE, SAMUEL TAYLOR, poet, philosopher, and critic, born in
Devonshire; passionately devoted to classical and metaphysical studies;
educated at Christ's Hospital; had Charles Lamb for schoolmate; at
Cambridge devoted himself to classics; falling into debt enlisted as a
soldier, and was, after four months, bought off by his friends; gave
himself up to a literary life; married, and took up house near
Wordsworth, in Somersetshire, where he produced the "Ancient Mariner,"
"Christabel," and "Remorse"; preached occasionally in Unitarian pulpits;
visited Germany and other parts of the Continent; lectured in London in
1808; when there took to opium, broke off the habit in 1816, and went to
stay with the Gillmans at Highgate as their guest, under whose roof,
after four years' confinement to a sick-room, he died; among his works
were "The Friend," his "Biographia Literaria," "Aids to Reflection," &c.,
published in his lifetime, and "Confessions of an Inquiring Spirit,"
"Literary Remains," and "Table Talk" after his death; he was a man of
subtle and large intellect, and exercised a great influence on the
thinkers of his time, though in no case was the influence a decisive one,
as it had the most opposite effects on different minds; his philosophy
was hazy, and his life was without aim, "once more the tragic story of a
high endowment with an insufficient will" (1772-1834). See Carlyle's
estimate of him in the "Life of Sterling."


COLERIDGE, SARAH, poetess, only daughter of preceding; her sole
poem, "Phantasmion"; left "Letters" of interest (1803-1852).


COLES, COWPER PHIPPS, an English naval captain and architect;
entered the navy at 11; distinguished himself at Sebastopol; designer of
the turret-ship the _Captain_, which capsized off Finisterre, himself on
board, and drowned with a crew of 500 men (1819-1870).


COLET, JOHN, dean of St. Paul's, a patron of learning, a friend and
scholar of Erasmus, a liberal and much persecuted man; far in advance of
his time; founded and endowed St. Paul's School; wrote a number of works,
chiefly theological, and "Letters to Erasmus"' (1466-1519).


COLET, LOUISE, a French literary lady, born at Aix; wrote numerous
works for the young (1808-1876).


COLIGNY, GASPARD DE, French admiral, born at Chatillon; a leader of
the Huguenots; began his life and distinguished himself as a soldier;
when the Guises came into power he busied himself in procuring toleration
for the Huguenots, and succeeded in securing in their behalf what is
known as the Pacification of Amboise, but on St. Bartholomew's Eve he
fell the first victim to the conspiracy in his bed; was thrown out of the
window, and exposed to every manner of indignity in the streets, though
it is hard to believe that the Duke of Guise, as is said, demeaned
himself to kick the still living body (1517-1572).


COLIMA (25), capital of a State of the same name in Mexico.


COLIN CLOUT, the name Spenser assumes in the "Shepherd's Calendar."


COLIN TAMPON, the nickname of a Swiss, as John Bull of an
Englishman.


COLISE`UM, a magnificent amphitheatre in Rome, begun under Vespasian
and finished under Titus; it rose from the area by 80 tiers of seats, and
could contain 80,000 spectators; it was here the gladiators fought with
wild beasts, and also the early Christians.


COLLATINUS, the nephew of Tarquinius Priscus, the husband of
Lucretia, and with Brutus, her avenger, the first consul of Rome.


COLLECTIVISM, the Socialistic doctrine that industry should be
carried on by capital as the joint property of the community.


COLLEGE DE FRANCE, an institution founded at Paris by Francis I. in
1530, where instruction is given to advanced students in several
departments of knowledge.


COLLIER, ARTHUR, an English metaphysician, born in Wilts; studied
Descartes and Malebranche, and who, anticipating Berkeley, published a
"Demonstration of the Non-Existence and the Impossibility of an External
World" (1680-1732). See BERKELEY.


COLLIER, JEREMY, an English non-juring divine, refused to take oath
at the Revolution; was imprisoned for advocating the rights of the
Stuarts; had to flee the country at length, and was outlawed; wrote with
effect against "The Profaneness and Immorality of the Stage," as well as
an "Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain," and a translation of the
"Meditations of Marcus Aurelius" (1650-1726).


COLLIER, JOHN PAYNE, a Shakespearian commentator and critic; wrote a
great deal on various subjects, but got into trouble by his emendations
of Shakespeare (1789-1883).


COLLINGWOOD, CUTHBERT, LORD, a celebrated English admiral, entered
the navy at 13; his career was intimately connected all along with that
of Nelson; succeeded in command when Nelson fell at Trafalgar, and when
he died himself, which happened at sea, his body was brought home and
buried beside Nelson's in St. Paul's Cathedral (1740-1810).


COLLINS, ANTHONY, an English deist, an intimate friend of Locke; his
principal works were "Discourse on Freethinking," "Philosophical Inquiry
into Liberty and Necessity," and "Grounds and Reasons of the Christian
Religion," which gave rise to much controversy; he was a necessitarian,
and argued against revelation (1676-1729).


COLLINS, MORTIMER, a versatile genius, born at Plymouth; wrote
poems, novels, and essays; was the author of "Who was the Heir?" and
"Sweet Anne Page"; was a tall, handsome man, fond of athletics, a
delightful companion, and dear to his friends (1827-1876).


COLLINS, WILKIE, English novelist, son of the succeeding, born in
London; tried business, then law, and finally settled to literature; his
novel "The Woman in White" was the first to take with the public, and was
preceded and succeeded by others which have ensured for him a high place
among the writers of fiction (1824-1889).


COLLINS, WILLIAM, a gifted and ill-fated English poet, born at
Chichester; settled in London; fell into dissipated habits and straitened
circumstances; had L2000 left him by an uncle, but both health and
spirits were broken, and he died in mental imbecility; his "Odes" have
not been surpassed, among which the most celebrated are the "Odes to the
Passions," to "Simplicity," and to "Evening" (1720-1756).


COLLINS, WILLIAM, R.A., a distinguished English painter, born in
London; he made his reputation by his treatment of coast and cottage
scenes, and though he tried his skill in other subjects, it was in the
subjects he started with that he achieved his greatest triumphs; among
his best-known works are "The Blackberry Gatherers," "As Happy as a
King," "The Fisherman's Daughter," and "The Bird-Catchers" (1788-1847).


COLLINSON, PETER, an English horticulturist, to whom we are indebted
for the introduction into the country of many ornamental shrubs
(1694-1768).


COLLOT D'HERBOIS, JEAN MARIE, a violent French Revolutionary,
originally a tragic actor, once hissed off the Lyons stage, "tearing a
passion to rags"; had his revenge by a wholesale butchery there; marched
209 men across the Rhone to be shot; by-and-by was banished beyond seas
to Cayenne, and soon died there (1750-1790).


COLLYER, JOSEPH, an eminent stipple engraver, born in London
(1768-1827).


COLMAN, GEORGE, an English dramatist, born at Florence; bred for and
called to the bar; author of a comedy entitled "The Jealous Wife," also
of "The Clandestine Marriage"; became manager of Drury Lane, then of the
Haymarket (1733-1794).


COLMAN, GEORGE, son of the preceding, and his successor in the
Haymarket; author of "The Iron Chest," "John Bull," "The Heir at Law,"
&c. (1762-1836).


COLMAR (30), the chief town of Upper Alsace, on the Lauch, on a
plain near the Vosges, 42 m. SW. of Strasburg; passed into the hands of
the French by treaty of Ryswick in 1697, was ceded to Germany in 1871.


COLOCETRONIS, a Greek patriot, born in Messina, distinguished
himself in the War of Independence, which he chiefly contributed to carry
through to a successful issue (1770-1843).


COLOGNE (282), in German KOeLN, capital of Rhenish Prussia, and
a fortress of first rank, on the left bank of the Rhine, 175 m. SE. of
Rotterdam; is a busy commercial city, and is engaged in eau-de-Cologne,
sugar, tobacco, and other manufactures. It has some fine old buildings,
and a picture gallery; but its glory is its great cathedral, founded in
the 9th century, burnt in 1248, since which time the rebuilding was
carried on at intervals, and only completed in 1880; it is one of the
masterpieces of Gothic architecture.


COLOGNE, THE THREE KINGS OF, the three Magi who paid homage to the
infant Christ, and whose bones were consigned to the archbishop in 1164;
they were called Gaspar, Melchior, and Balthazar.


COLOMBIA (4,000), a federal republic of nine States, occupying the
isthmus of Panama and the NW. corner of S. America, between Venezuela and
Ecuador. The country, nearly three times the size of France, though it
has only a ninth of the population, comprises in the W. three chains of
the Andes and the plateaus between them, in the E. plains well watered by
tributaries of the Orinoco. The upper valleys of the Magdalena and Cauca
are the centres of population, where the climate is delightful, and grain
grows. Every climate is found in Colombia, from the tropical heats of the
plains to the Arctic cold of the mountains. Natural productions are as
various: the exports include valuable timbers and dye-woods, cinchona
bark, coffee, cacao, cotton, and silver ore. Most of the trade is with
Britain and the United States. Manufactures are inconsiderable. The
mineral wealth is very great, but little wrought. The Panama Railway,
from Colon to Panama, connects the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans, and
is a most important highway of commerce. The people are descendants of
Spaniards and Indians; education is meagre, but compulsory; the State
Church is Roman Catholic. The capital is Bogota. Panama and Cartagena the
chief ports.


COLOMBO (126), the capital of Ceylon, and the chief port on the W.
coast; it is surrounded on three sides by the sea, and on the other by a
lake and moat; is supplied with water and gas; has many fine buildings;
has a very mixed population, and has belonged to Britain since 1796;
communicates with Kandy by railway.


COLON, a town at the Atlantic terminus of the Panama Railway. See
ASPINWALL.


COLONNA, an illustrious Italian family, to which belonged popes,
cardinals, and generals.


COLONNA, VICTORIA, a poetess, married to a member of the above
family, who consoled herself for his early death by cultivating her
poetic gift; one of her most devoted friends was Michael Angelo
(1490-1547).


COLONNE, EDOUARD, musical conductor, born at Bordeaux, conductor of
what are known as "Colonne Concerts"; _b_. 1838.


COLONUS, a demos of Attica, a mile NW. of Athens, the birthplace of
Sophocles.


COLOPHON, an Ionian city in Asia Minor, N. of Ephesus, is supposed
to give name to the device at the end of books, the cavalry of the place
being famous for giving the finishing stroke to a battle.


COLORA`DO (412), an inland State of the American Union, traversed by
the Rocky Mountains, and watered by the upper reaches of the S. Platte
and Arkansas Rivers, is twice as large as England. The mountains are the
highest in the States (13,000 to 14,000 ft.), are traversed by lofty
passes through which the railways run, have rich spacious valleys or
parks among them, and have great deposits of gold, silver, lead, and
iron. There are also extensive coal-beds; hence the leading industries
are mining and iron working. The eastern portion is a level, treeless
plain, adapted for grazing. Agriculture, carried on with irrigation,
suffers from insect plagues like the Colorado potato beetle. The climate
is dry and clear, and attracts invalids. Acquired partly from France in
1804, and the rest from Mexico in 1848; the territory was organised in
1861, and admitted to the Union in 1876. The capital is Denver (107).
There is a small Spanish-speaking population in the S.


COLOSSAE, a city in the S. of Phrygia, in Asia Minor, and the site of
one of the earliest Christian churches.


COLOSSIANS, THE EPISTLE TO THE, by St. Paul, directed mainly against
two errors of that early date, that the fleshly nature of man is no
adequate vehicle for the reception and revelation of the divine nature,
and that for redemption recourse must be had to direct mortification of
the flesh.


COLOSSUS, any gigantic statue, specially one of Apollo in bronze,
120 ft. high, astride over the mouth of the harbour at Rhodes, reckoned
one of the seven wonders of the world, erected in 280 B.C., destroyed by
an earthquake 56 years after, and sold to a Jew centuries later for old
metal; besides this are celebrated the statue of Memnon at Thebes, the
Colossi of Athene in the Parthenon at Athens, and of Zeus at Olympia and
at Tarentum, as well as others of modern date; for instance, Germania,
112 ft. high, in the Niederwald, and Liberty enlightening the World, 160
ft. high, in New York harbour.


COLOT, the name of a family of French surgeons in the 16th and 17th
century, distinguished for their skill in operating in the case of stone.


COLOUR-BLINDNESS, inability, still unaccounted for, to distinguish
between colours, and especially between red and green, more common among
men than women; a serious disqualification for several occupations, such
as those connected with the study of signals.


COLOUR-SERGEANT, a sergeant whose duty is to guard the colours and
those who carry them.


COLQUHOUN, JOHN, a noted sportsman and writer on sport in Scotland,
born in Edinburgh (1805-1885).


COLSTON, EDWARD, an English philanthropist, founded and endowed a
school in Bristol for the education of 100 boys, as well as almshouses
elsewhere (1636-1721).


COLT, SAMUEL, the inventor of the revolver, born in Hartford,
Connecticut, U.S.; having difficulty in raising money to carry out his
invention it proved a commercial failure, but being adopted by the
Government in the Mexican war it proved a success, since which time it
has been everywhere in use (1814-1862).


COLUMBA, ST., the apostle of Christianity to the Scots, born in
Donegal; coming to Scotland about 563, in his forty-second year, founded
a monastery in Iona, and made it the centre of his evangelistic
operations, in which work he was occupied incessantly till 596, when his
health began to fail, and he breathed his last kneeling before the altar,
June 9, 597.


COLUMBAN, ST., an Irish missionary, who, with twelve companions,
settled in Gaul in 585; founded two monasteries, but was banished for the
offence of rebuking the king; went to Italy, founded a monastery at
Bobbio, where he died 616.


COLUMBIA, a district of 70 sq. m. in the State of Maryland, U.S.,
in which Washington, the capital of the Union, stands.


COLUMBIA, BRITISH (100), the most westerly province in Canada, lies
between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific, the United States and
Alaska, and is four times the size of Great Britain. It is a mountainous
country, rugged and picturesque, containing the highest peaks on the
continent, Mount Hooker, 15,700 ft., and Mount Brown, 16,000 ft, with a
richly indented coast-line, off which lie Queen Charlotte Islands and
Vancouver. The chief river is the Frazer, which flows from the Lake
region southwards through the centre and then westward to the Gulf of
Georgia; the upper waters of the Columbia flow southward through the E.
of the State. The climate resembles that of northern England, but is in
some parts very rainy. The chief industries are lumbering--the forests
are among the finest in the world, fishing--the rivers abound in salmon
and sturgeon, and mining--rich deposits of gold, silver, iron, copper,
mercury, antimony, and many other valuable minerals are found; there are
great coal-fields in Vancouver. In Vancouver and in the river valleys of
the mainland are extensive tracts of arable and grazing land; but neither
agriculture nor manufactures are much developed. Made a Crown colony in
1858, it joined the Dominion as a province in 1871. The completion of the
Canadian Pacific Railway in 1885 joined it to the eastern provinces. The
capital is Victoria (17), in the S. of Vancouver.


COLUMBUS (125), capital of Ohio, U.S., a manufacturing town.


COLUMBUS, BARTHOLOMEW, cosmographer, brother of Christopher
Columbus; accompanied him to St. Domingo, and became governor; _d_. 1514.


COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER, discoverer of America, on Oct. 12, 1492,
after two months of great peril and, in the end, mutiny of his men, born
in Genoa; went to sea at 14; cherished, if he did not conceive, the idea
of reaching India by sailing westward; applied in many quarters for
furtherance; after seven years of waiting, was provided with three small
vessels and a crew of 120 men; first touched land at the Bahamas, visited
Cuba and Hayti, and returned home with spoils of the land; was hailed and
honoured as King of the Sea; he made three subsequent visits, and on the
third had the satisfaction of landing on the mainland, which Sebastian
Cabot and Amerigo Vespucci had reached before him; he became at last the
victim of jealousy, and charges were made against him, which so cut him
to the heart that he never rallied from the attack, and he died at
Valladolid, broken in body and in soul; Carlyle, in a famous passage,
salutes him across the centuries: "Brave sea-captain, Norse sea-king,
Columbus my hero, royalist sea-king of all" (1438-1506).


COLUMELLA, JUNIUS, a Latin writer of the 1st century, born at Cadiz;
author of "De Re Rustica," in 12 books, on the same theme as Virgil's
"Georgics," viz., agriculture and gardening; he wrote also "De
Arboribus," on trees.


COLU`THUS, a Greek epic poet of 6th century, born in Egypt; wrote
the "Rape of Helen."


COLVIN, SIDNEY, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, Slade
Professor of Art at Cambridge, born at Norwood; contributor to the
journals on art and literature; has written Lives of Keats and Landor;
friend of Robert Louis Stevenson, and his literary executor; _b_. 1845.


COMACCHIO (10), a walled town, 30 m. SE. of Ferrara; famous for
fish, specially eel-culture in a large lagoon adjoining, 90 in. in
circumference.


COMBE, ANDREW, M.D., a physician and physiologist, born in
Edinburgh; studied under Spurzheim in Edinburgh and Paris, but on his
return to his native city was seized with pulmonary consumption, which
rendered him a confirmed invalid, so that he had to spend his winters
abroad; was eminent as a physician; was a believer in phrenology;
produced three excellent popular works on Physiology, Digestion, and the
Management of Infancy (1797-1847).


COMBE, GEORGE, brother of the preceding, born in Edinburgh; trained
to the legal profession; like his brother, he became, under Spurzheim, a
stanch phrenologist and advocate of phrenology; but his ablest and
best-known work was "The Constitution of Man," to the advocacy of the
principles of which and their application, especially to education, he
devoted his life; he married a daughter of the celebrated Mrs. Siddons
(1788-1858).


COMBE, WILLIAM, born in Bristol; author of the "Three Tours of Dr.
Syntax"; inherited a small fortune, which he squandered by an irregular
life; wrote some 86 works (1741-1823).


COMBERMERE, VISCOUNT, a British field-marshal, born in Denbighshire;
served in Flanders, at the Cape of Good Hope, and in India; was present
at the siege of Seringapatam; was sent to Spain in 1808; distinguished
himself in the Peninsula, and particularly at Talavera; received a
peerage in 1827; was made commander-in-chief in India, and Constable of
the Tower in succession to Wellington in 1832 (1773-1865).


COMENIUS, JOHN AMOS, a Moravian educational reformer, particularly
as regards the acquisition of languages in their connection with the
things they denote; his two most famous books are his "Janua Linguarum"
and his "Orbis Sensualium Pictus"; his principle at bottom was, words
must answer to and be associated with things and ideas of things, a
principle still only very partially adopted in education, and that only
at the most elementary stages.


COMET, a member of the solar system under control of the sun,
consisting of a bright nucleus within a nebulous envelope, generally
extended into a tail on the rear of its orbit, which is extremely
eccentric, pursuing its course with a velocity which increases as it
approaches the sun, and which diminishes as it withdraws from it; these
bodies are very numerous, have their respective periods of revolution,
which have been in many cases determined by observation.


COMINES, a French town in the dep. of Nord, France, 15 m. SW. of
Courtrai.


COMINES, PHILIPPE DE, a French chronicler, born at Comines; was of
Flemish origin; served under Charles the Bold, then under Louis XI. and
Charles VIII.; author of "Memoires," in seven vols., of the reigns of
these two monarchs, which give a clear and faithful picture of the time
and the chief actors in it, but with the coolest indifference as to the
moral elements at work, with him the end justifying the means, and
success the measure of morality (1443-1509).


COMITIA, constitutional assemblies of the Roman citizens for
electing magistrates, putting some question to the vote of the people,
the declaration of war, &c.


COMITY OF NATIONS, the name given for the effect given in one
country to the laws and institutions of another in dealing with a native
of it.


COMMANDITE, SOCIETE EN, partnership in a business by a supply of
funds, but without a share in the management or incurring further
liability.


COMMELIN, ISAAC, Dutch historian; wrote the "Lives of the
Stadtholders William I. and Maurice" (1598-1676).


COMMENTARIES OF JULIUS CAESAR, his memoirs of the Gallic and Civil
Wars, reckoned the most perfect model of narration that in such
circumstances was ever written, and a masterpiece.


COMMITTEE OF PUBLIC SAFETY, a committee of nine created by the
French Convention, April 6, 1793, to concentrate the power of the
executive, "the conscience of Marat, who could see salvation in one thing
only, in the fall of 260,000 aristocrats' heads"; notable, therefore, for
its excesses in that line; was not suppressed till Oct. 19, 1796, on the
advent of the Directory to power.


COM`MODUS, LUCIUS AURELIUS, Roman emperor, son and successor of
Marcus Aurelius; carefully trained, but on his father's death threw up
the reins and gave himself over to every form of licentiousness; poison
administered by his mistress Marcia being slow in operating, he was
strangled to death by a hired athlete in 162.


COMMON LAW is law established by usage and confirmed by judicial
decision.


COMMON-SENSE, PHILOSOPHY OF, the philosophy which rests on the
principle that the perceptions of the senses reflect things as they
actually are irrespectively of them.


COMMUNE, THE, a revolutionary power installed in Paris after the
"admonitory" insurrection of March 18, 1871, and overthrown in the end of
May.


COMMUNISM, community of property in a State.


COMNE`NUS, name of a dynasty of six emperors of Constantinople.


COMO, LAKE OF, one of the chief lakes of Lombardy and the third in
size, at the foot of the Pennine Alps, 80 m. long and 21/2 at greatest
breadth; is traversed by the Adda, and is famed for the beauty and rich
variety of its scenery.


COMORIN, CAPE, a low sandy point, the most southerly of India, from
which the seaman is beckoned off by a peak 18 m. inland.


COMORO ISLES (63), an archipelago of four volcanic islands at the N.
of the channel of Mozambique; under the protectorate of France since
1886; the people are Mohammedans, and speak Arabic.


COMPARETTI, an Italian philologist; his writings are numerous; _b_.
1835.


COMPIEGNE (14), a quiet old town in the dep. of Oise, 50 m. NE. of
Paris; has some fine old churches, but the chief edifice is the palace,
built by St. Louis and rebuilt by Louis XIV., where the marriage of
Napoleon to Maria Louisa was celebrated; here Joan of Arc was made
prisoner in 1430, and Louis Napoleon had hunting ground.


COMPTON, HENRY, bishop of London, son of the Earl of Northampton;
fought bravely for Charles I.; was colonel of dragoons at the
Restoration; left the army for the Church; was made bishop; crowned
William and Mary when the archbishop, Sancroft, refused; _d_. 1713.


COMRIE (8), a village in Perthshire, on the Earn, 20 m. W. of Perth,
in a beautiful district of country; subject to earthquakes from time to
time; birthplace of George Gilfillan.


COMTE, AUGUSTE, a French philosopher, born at Montpellier, the
founder of POSITIVISM (q. v.); enough to say here, it consisted
of a new arrangement of the sciences into Abstract and Concrete, and a
new law of historical evolution in science from a theological through a
metaphysical to a positive stage, which last is the ultimate and crowning
and alone legitimate method, that is, observation of phenomena and their
sequence; Comte was first a disciple of St. Simon, but he quarrelled with
him; commenced a "Cours de Philosophie Positive" of his own, in six
vols.; but finding it defective on the moral side, he instituted a
worship of humanity, and gave himself out as the chief priest of a new
religion, a very different thing from Carlyle's hero-worship (1795-1857).


COMUS, the Roman deity who presided over festive revelries; the
title of a poem by Milton, "the most exquisite of English or any masks."


COMYN, JOHN (the Black Comyn), Lord of Badenoch, a Scottish noble of
French descent, his ancestor, born at Comines, having come over with the
Conqueror and got lands given him; was one of the competitors for the
Scottish crown in 1291, and lost it.


COMYN, JOHN (the Red Comyn), son of the preceding; as one of the
three Wardens of Scotland defended it against the English, whom he
defeated at Roslin; but in 1304 submitted to Edward I., and falling under
suspicion of Bruce, was stabbed by him in a monastery at Dumfries in
1306.


CONCEPCION (24), a town in Chile, S. of Valparaiso, with its port,
Talcahuano, 7 m. off, one of the safest and most commodious in the
country, and ranks next to Valparaiso as a trading centre.


CONCEPTION OF OUR LADY, an order of nuns founded in Portugal in
1484; at first followed the rule of the Cistercians, but afterwards that
of St. Clare.


CONCIERGERIE, a prison in the Palais de Justice, Paris.


CONCLAVE, properly the room, generally in the Vatican, where the
cardinals are confined under lock and key while electing a Pope.


CONCORD, a town in U.S., 23 m. NW. of Boston; was the residence of
Emerson, Thoreau, and Hawthorne; here the first engagement took place in
the American war in 1775.


CONCORD (17), capital of New Hampshire, U.S., a thriving trading
place.


CONCORDAT, THE, a convention of July 15, 1801, between Bonaparte and
Pius V., regulative of the relations of France with the Holy See.


CONCORDE, PLACE DE LA, a celebrated public place, formed by Louis
XV. in 1748, adorned by a statue of him; at the Revolution it was called
Place de la Revolution; here Louis XVI. and his queen were guillotined.


CONCORDIA, the Roman goddess of peace, to whom Camillus the dictator
in 367 B.C. dedicated a temple on the conclusion of the strife between
the patricians and plebeians.


CONDE, HENRY I., PRINCE OF, fought in the ranks of the Huguenots,
but escaped the massacre of St. Bartholomew by an oath of abjuration
(1552-1588).


CONDE, HOUSE OF, a collateral branch of the house of Bourbon, the
members of which played all along a conspicuous role in the history of
France.


CONDE, LOUIS I., PRINCE OF, founder of the house of Conde, a brave,
gallant man, though deformed; distinguished himself in the wars between
Henry II. and Charles V., particularly in the defence of Metz; affronted
at court, and obnoxious to the Guises, he became a Protestant, and joined
his brother the king of Navarre; became the head of the party, and was
treacherously killed after the battle of Jarnac; he had been party,
however, to the conspiracy of Amboise, which aimed a death-blow at the
Guises (1530-1569).


CONDE, LOUIS II., PRINCE OF, named "the Great Conde," born at Paris;
was carefully educated; acquired a taste for literature, which stood him
in good stead at the end of his career; made his reputation by his
victory over the Spaniards at Recroi; distinguished himself at Fribourg,
Nordlingen, and Lens; the settlement of the troubles of the Fronde
alienated him, so that he entered the service of Spain, and served
against his country, but was by-and-by reconciled; led the French army to
success in Franche-Comte and Holland, and soon after retired to
Chantilly, where he enjoyed the society of such men as Moliere, Boileau,
and La Bruyere, and when he died Bossuet pronounced a funeral oration
over his grave (1621-1686).


CONDE, LOUIS JOSEPH, PRINCE DE, born at Chantilly; served in the
Seven Years' War; attended in the antechamber in the palace when Louis
XV. lay dying; was one of the first to emigrate on the fall of the
Bastille; seized every opportunity to save the monarchy; was declared a
traitor to the country, and had his estates confiscated for threatening
to restore Louis XVI.; organised troops to aid in the Restoration;
settled at Malmesbury, in England, during the Empire; returned to France
with Louis XVIII. (1736-1818).


CONDILLAC, ETIENNE BONNOT, a French philosopher, born at Grenoble,
of good birth; commenced as a disciple of Locke, but went further, for
whereas Locke was content to deduce empirical knowledge from sensation
and reflection, he deduced reflection from sensation, and laid the
foundation of a sensationalism which, in the hands of his successors,
went further still, and swamped the internal in the external, and which
is now approaching the stage of self-cancelling zero; he lived as a
recluse, and had Rousseau and Diderot for intimate friends (1715-1780).


CONDITIONAL IMMORTALITY, the doctrine that only believers in Christ
have any future existence, a dogma founded on certain isolated passages
of Scripture.


CONDORCET, MARQUIS DE, a French mathematician and philosopher, born
near St. Quentin; contributed to the "Encyclopedie"; was of the
Encyclopedist school; took sides with the Revolutionary party in the
interest of progress; voted with the Girondists usually; suspected by the
extreme party; was not safe even under concealment; "skulked round Paris
in thickets and stone-quarries; entered a tavern one bleared May morning,
ragged, rough-bearded, hunger-stricken, and asked for breakfast; having a
Latin Horace about him was suspected and haled to prison, breakfast
unfinished; fainted by the way with exhaustion; was flung into a damp
cell, and found next morning lying dead on the floor"; his works are
voluminous, and the best known is his "Exquisse du Progres de l'Esprit
Humain"; he was not an original thinker, but a clear expositor
(1743-1794).


CONDOTTIE`RI, leaders of Italian free-lances, who in the 14th and
15th centuries lived by plunder or hired themselves to others for a share
in the spoils.


CONFEDERATE STATES, 11 Southern States of the American Union, which
seceded in 1861 on the question of slavery, and which occasioned a civil
war that lasted till 1865.


CONFEDERATION OF THE RHINE, a confederation of 16 German States,
which in 1806 dissolved their connection with Germany and leagued with
France, and which lasted till disaster overtook Napoleon in Russia, and
then broke up; the Germanic Confederation, or union of all the States,
took its place, till it too was dissolved by the defeat of Austria in
1866, and which gave ascendency to Prussia and ensured the erection of
the German empire on its ruins.


CONFERENCE, a stated meeting of Wesleyan ministers for the
transaction of the business of their Church.


CONFESSIONS OF FAITH, are statements of doctrine very similar to
Creeds, but usually longer and polemical, as well as didactic; they are
in the main, though not exclusively, associated with Protestantism; the
16th century produced many, including the _Sixty-seven Articles_ of the
Swiss reformers, drawn up by Zwingli in 1523; the _Augsburg Confession_
of 1530, the work of Luther and Melanchthon, which marked the breach with
Rome; the _Tetrapolitan Confession_ of the German Reformed Church, 1530;
the _Gallican Confession_, 1559; and the _Belgic Confession_ of 1561. In
Britain the _Scots Confession_, drawn up by John Knox in 1560; the
_Thirty-nine Articles_ of the Church of England in 1562; the _Irish
Articles_ in 1615; and the _Westminster Confession of Faith_ in 1647;
this last, the work of the Westminster Assembly of Divines, has by its
force of language, logical statement, comprehensiveness, and dependence
on Scripture, commended itself to the Presbyterian Churches of all
English-speaking peoples, and is the most widely recognised Protestant
statement of doctrine; it has as yet been modified only by the United
Presbyterian Church of Scotland, which adopted a Declaratory Statement
regarding certain of its doctrines in 1879, and by the Free Church of
Scotland, which adopted a similar statement in 1890.


CONFESSIONS OF ROUSSEAU, memoirs published after his death in 1788,
in which that writer makes confession of much that was good in him and
much that was bad.


CONFESSIONS OF ST. AUGUSTINE, an account which that Father of the
Church gives of the errors of his youth and his subsequent conversion.


CONFUCIUS, the Latin form of the name of the great sage of China,
Kung Futsze, and the founder of a religion which is based on the worship
and practice of morality as exemplified in the lives and teachings of the
wise men who have gone before, and who, as he conceived, have made the
world what it is, and have left it to posterity to build upon the same
basis; while he lived he was held in greater and greater honour by
multitudes of disciples, till on his death he became an object of
worship, and even his descendants came to be regarded as a kind of sacred
caste; he flourished about 550 B.C.


CONGE D'ELIRE, a warrant granted by the Crown to the dean and
chapter of a cathedral to elect a particular bishop to a vacant see.


CONGO, the second in length and largest in volume of the African
rivers, rises NE. of the Muchinga Mountains in Rhodesia, flows SW.
through Lake Bangueola, then N. to the equator; curving in a great
semicircle it continues SW., passes in a series of rapids through the
coast range, and enters the S. Atlantic by an estuary 6 m. broad. It
brings down more water than the other African rivers put together. The
largest affluents are the Kassai on the left, and the Mobangi on the
right bank; 110 m. are navigable to ocean steamers, then the cataracts
intervene, and 250 m. of railway promote transit; the upper river is 2 to
4 m. broad, and navigable for small craft up to Stanley Falls, 1068 m.
The name most associated with its exploration is H. M. Stanley; during
its course of 3000 m. it bears several names.


CONGO, FRENCH (5,000), a continuous and connected territory
extending westward along the right bank of the Congo from Brazzaville to
the mouth of the Mobangi, and as far as 4 deg. N. run N. behind the
Cameroons, and along the E. of Shari to Lake Tchad.


CONGO FREE STATE embraces most of the basin of the Congo, touching
British territory in Uganda and Rhodesia, with a very narrow outlet to
the Atlantic at the river mouth. It is under the sovereignty of Leopold
II. of Belgium, who, in 1890, made over his rights to Belgium with power
to annex the State in 1900. It is nine times the size of Great Britain,
and continual native unrest gives great trouble to its administrators.
Its waters are open to all nations, and traders exchange manufactured
goods for ivory, palm-oil, coffee and caoutchouc, bees-wax and fruits.
The climate is tropical, on the lower levels malarial. The population is
from 20 to 40 millions. The centre of administration is Boma, 80 m. from
the sea.


CONGREGATIONALISM, the ecclesiastical system which regards each
congregation of believers in Christ a church complete in itself, and free
from the control of the other Christian communities, and which extends to
each member equal privileges as a member of Christ's body. It took its
rise in England about 1571, and the most prominent name connected with
its establishment is that of ROBERT BROWN (q. v.), who seceded
from the Church of England and formed a church in Norwich in 1580. The
body was called Brownists after him, and Separatists, as well as
"Independents." The several congregations are now united in what is
called "The Congregational Union of England and Wales."


CONGRESS is a diplomatic conference at which the representatives of
sovereign States discuss matters of importance to their several
countries, the most celebrated of which are those of Muenster and
Osnabrueck, which issued in the treaty of Westphalia in 1648, at the end
of the Thirty Years' War; of Rastadt, at the end of Spanish Succession
War, in 1797; of Vienna, at the end of Napoleon's wars, in 1815; of
Paris, in 1856, at the end of Russian War; and of Berlin, in 1878, at the
end of Russo-Turkish war; but the name has come to be applied in federal
republics to the legislative assembly which directs national as distinct
from State concerns. In the United States, Congress consists of the
Senate, elected by the State legislatures and the House of
Representatives, elected directly by the people. It meets on the first
Monday in December, and receives the President's message for the year. It
imposes taxes, contracts loans, provides for national defence, declares
war, looks after the general welfare, establishes postal communication,
coins money, fixes weights and measures, &c. &c., but it is prohibited
from preferential treatment of the several States, establishing or
interfering with religion, curtailing freedom of speech, or pursuing
towards any citizen, even under legal forms, a course of conduct which is
unjust or even oppressive.


CONGRESS, the Belgian Constituent Assembly, 1830-1831.


CONGREVE, RICHARD, author of political tracts, was a pupil of Dr.
Arnold's, and a disciple of Comte in philosophy; _b_. 1818.


CONGREVE, WILLIAM, English comic dramatist, born near Leeds; entered
a student of the Middle Temple, but soon abandoned law for literature;
the "Old Bachelor" first brought him into repute, and a commissionership
of substantial value; the production of "Love for Love" and the "Mourning
Bride," a stilted tragedy, added immensely to his popularity, but his
comedy "The Way of the World" being coldly received, he gave up writing
plays, and only wrote a few verses afterwards; he was held in great
esteem by his contemporaries, among others Dryden, Pope, and Steele
(1670-1729).


CONGREVE, SIR WILLIAM, an English artillery officer, inventor of the
rocket which bears his name (1772-1828).


CONINGSBY, a novel by Disraeli.


CONINGTON, JOHN, classical scholar and professor of Latin at Oxford,
born at Boston, translator of the "AEneid" of Virgil, "Odes, Satires, and
Epistles" of Horace, and 12 books of the "Iliad" into verse, as well as
of other classics; his greatest work is his edition of "Virgil"
(1823-1869).


CONISBURGH CASTLE, an old round castle referred to in "Ivanhoe," 5
in. SW. of Doncaster.


CONISTON WATER, a lake 5 m. long and 1/2 m. broad, at the foot of
Coniston Fells, in Lancashire, with Brantwood on the E. side of it, the
residence of John Ruskin.


CONKLING, ROSCOE, an American politician, a leading man on the
Republican side; was a member of the House of Representatives, and also
of the Senate; retired from politics, and practised law at New York
(1828-1888).


CONNAUGHT (724), a western province of Ireland, 105 m. long and 92
m. broad, divided into five counties; is the smallest and most barren of
the provinces, but abounds in picturesque scenery; the people are pure
Celts.


CONNAUGHT, DUKE OF, the third son of Queen Victoria, bred for the
army, has held several military appointments; was promoted to the rank of
general in 1893, and made commander-in-chief at Aldershot; _b_. 1850.


CONNECTICUT (746), southernmost of the New England States, is washed
by Long Island Sound, has New York on the W., Rhode Island on the E., and
Massachusetts on the N. It is the third smallest State, rocky and uneven
in surface, unfertile except in the Connecticut River valley. Streams
abound, and supply motive-power for very extensive manufactures of
clocks, hardware, india-rubber goods, smallwares, textiles, and firearms.
There are iron-mines in the NW., stone-quarries, lead, copper, and cobalt
mines. Climate is healthy, changeable, and in winter severe. Education is
excellently provided for. Yale University, at New Haven, is thoroughly
equipped; there are several divinity schools, Trinity College at
Hartford, and the Wesleyan University at Middleton. The capital is
Hartford (53); New Haven (81) is the largest town and chief port. The
original colony was a democratic secession from Massachusetts in 1634.
The constitution of 1639 was the first written democratic constitution on
record. Its present constitution as a State dates from 1818.


CONNECTICUT, a river in the United States which rises on the
confines of Canada, and, after a course of 450 m., falls into the
Atlantic at Long Island.


CONNEMARA, a wild district with picturesque scenery in W. of co.
Galway, Ireland.


CONOLLY, JOHN, physician, born in Lincolnshire, studied at
Edinburgh, settled in London, distinguished for having introduced and
advocated a more rational and humane treatment of the insane (1794-1866).


CONRAD, CADET OF THE HOUSE OF HOHENZOLLERN, served under the
illustrious Barbarossa; proved a capable young fellow under him; married
the heiress of the Vohburgs; was appointed Burggraf of Nuernberg, 1170,
and prince of the empire; "he is the lineal ancestor of Frederick the
Great, twentieth in direct ascent, let him wait till nineteen
generations, valiantly like Conrad, have done their part, Conrad will
find he has come to this," that was realised in Frederick and his time.


CONRAD, MARQUIS OF TYRE, threw himself into Tyre when beset by
Saladin, and held it till Richard Coeur de Lion and Philip Augustus
arrived; was assassinated by emissaries of the Old Man of the Mountain in
1192.


CONRAD I., count of Franconia, elected on the extinction of the
Carlovingian line Emperor of the Germans, which he continued to be from
911 to 915; fell wounded in battle with the Huns, egged on by a rival.


CONRAD II., the Salic, of the same family as the preceding; elected
Emperor of Germany in 1024; reigned 15 years, extending the empire,
suppressing disorders, and effecting reforms.


CONRAD III., founder of the Hohenstaufen dynasty; elected Emperor of
Germany in 1138; had Henry the Proud, as head of the German Guelfs, for
rival; crushed him at Weinsberg; joined Louis VII. of France on a third
crusade, and returning, overthrew the Guelfs again, leaving Barbarossa as
his heir; _d_. 1152.


CONRAD OF THUeRINGIA, a proud, quick, fiery-tempered magnate, seized
the archbishop of Mainz once, swung him round, and threatened to cut him
in two; stormed, plundered, and set fire to an imperial free town for an
affront offered him; but admonished of his sins became penitent, and
reconciled himself by monastic vow to the Pope and mankind about 1234.


CONRADIN THE BOY, or CONRAD V., the last representative of the
Hohenstaufen dynasty of Romish Kaisers, had fallen into the Pope's
clutches, who was at mortal feud with the empire, and was put to death by
him on the scaffold at Naples, October 25, 1265, the "bright and brave"
lad, only 16, "throwing out his glove (in symbolic protest) amid the dark
mute Neapolitan multitudes" that idly looked on. See CARLYLE'S
"FREDERICK THE GREAT" FOR THE CONRADS.


CONSALVI, Italian cardinal and statesman, born at Rome, secretary of
Pius VII.; concluded the Concordat with Napoleon in 1801; represented the
Pope at the Congress of Vienna; was a liberal patron of literature,
science, and arts; continued minister of the Pope till his death
(1757-1824).


CONSCIENCE, HENDRIK, a brilliant Flemish novelist, born at Antwerp;
rose to popularity among his countrymen by his great national romance the
"Lion of Flanders," a popularity which soon extended all over Europe; his
writings display great descriptive power and perfect purity of sentiment
(1812-1883).


CONSCRIPT FATHERS, the collective name of members of the Roman
Senate, and addressed as such, fathers as seniors and conscripts as
enrolled.


CONSERVATION OF ENERGY, the doctrine that, however it may be
transformed or dissipated, no fraction of energy is ever lost, that the
amount of force, as of matter, in the universe, under all mutation
remains the same.


CONSERVATISM, indisposition to change established laws and customs
that have wrought beneficially in the past and contributed to the welfare
of the country; in practical politics often a very different thing, and
regarded by Carlyle in his time "a portentous enbodied sham; accursed of
God, and doomed to destruction, as all lies are."


CONSIDERANT, VICTOR PROSPER, a French Socialist and disciple of
Fourier; founded a colony in Texas on Fourier's principles, which proved
a failure; wrote much in advocacy of his principles, of which the most
important is "La Destinee Sociale"; _b_. 1808.


CONSOLS, the Consolidated Fund, loans to Government made at
different times and at different rates of interest, consolidated for
convenience into one common loan, bearing interest at 3 per cent.,
reduced in 1830 to 23/4, and in 1893 to 21/2.


CONSTABLE, a high officer of State in the Roman empire, in France,
and in England, charged at one time with military, judicial, and
regulative functions.


CONSTABLE, ARCHIBALD, Edinburgh publisher, born in Carnbee, Fife;
started as a bookseller near the Cross in Edinburgh; published the _Scots
Magazine_, the _Edinburgh Review_, and the "Encyclopaedia Britannica," and
from 1802 to 1826 the works of Sir Walter Scott, when the bankruptcy
connected with the publication of these so affected him that it ruined
his health, though he lived after the crash came to start the
"Miscellany" which bears his name (1774-1827).


CONSTABLE, HENRY, English poet, author of sonnets, 28 in number,
under the title of "Diana" (1560-1612).


CONSTABLE, JOHN, an eminent landscape-painter, born in Suffolk; his
works were more generously appreciated in France than in his own country,
as they well might be, where they had not, as in England, to stand
comparison with those of Turner; but he is now, despite the depreciation
of Ruskin, becoming recognised among us as one of our foremost
landscapists, and enormous prices have been given of late for his best
pictures; some of his best works adorn the walls of the National Gallery;
Ruskin allows his art is original, honest, free from affectation, and
manly (1776-1837).


CONSTABLE DE BOURBON, Charles, Duc de Bourbon, a brilliant military
leader, and a powerful enemy of Francis I.; killed when leading the
assault on Rome (1489-1527).


CONSTANCE (16), a city of the Grand-Duchy of Baden, on the S. bank
of the Rhine, at its exit from the lake; famous for the seat of the
council (1414-1418) which condemned John Huss and Jerome of Prague to
death; long famous for its linen manufacture.


CONSTANCE, LAKE, or BODENSEE, partly in Germany and partly in
Switzerland; is about 44 m. long and 9 m. broad at most; is traversed by
the Rhine from W. to E., is 1306 ft. above sea-level; is surrounded by
vineyards, cornfields, and wooded slopes; its waters are hardly ever
frozen, and often rise and fall suddenly.


CONSTANT, BENJAMIN, a highly popular French painter of the Realistic
school, born at Paris; his first picture was "Hamlet and the King";
afterwards he took chiefly to Oriental subjects, which afforded the best
scope for his talent; occupies a high place in the modern French school,
and has been promoted to the rank of Officer of the Legion of Honour;
_b_. 1845.


CONSTANT DE REBECQUE, HENRY BENJAMIN DE, a French politician, of
liberal constitutional principles, born at Lausanne, of Huguenot parents;
settled in Paris at the commencement of the Revolution, where he
distinguished himself by his political writings and speeches; was
expelled from France in 1802, along with Mme. de Stael, for denouncing
the military ascendency of Napoleon; lived for a time at Weimar in the
society of Goethe and Schiller; translated Schiller's "Wallenstein";
returned to France in 1814; declared for the Bourbons, and pled in favour
of constitutional liberty; he was a supporter of Louis Philippe, and a
rationalist in religion, and declared himself opposed to the supernatural
element in all religions (1760-1830).


CONSTANTIA, a wine district of Cape Colony under E. flank of Table
Mountain.


CONSTANTINE (50), inland city of Algeria, on a rocky height;
leather-working its staple industry.


CONSTANTINE, the name of 13 emperors who reigned at Rome or
Byzantium between 306 and 1453.


CONSTANTINE I., called the Great, born in Moesia, son of Constantius
Chlorus by Helena; on the death of his father at York, where he
accompanied him, was proclaimed Emperor by the troops; this title being
challenged by Maximian, his father-in-law, and Maxentius, his
brother-in-law, he took up arms against first the one and then the other,
and defeated them; when one day he saw a cross in the sky with the words
_By this Conquer_ in Greek, under this sign, known as the _labarum_,
which he adopted as his standard, he accordingly marched straight to
Rome, where he was acknowledged Emperor by the Senate in 312; and
thereafter an edict was issued named of Milan, granting toleration to the
Christians; he had still to extend his empire over the East, and having
done so by the removal of Lucinius, he transferred the seat of his empire
to Byzantium, which hence got the name of Constantinople, i. e.
Constantine's city; had himself baptized in 337 as a Christian, after
having three years before proclaimed Christianity the State religion
(274-337).


CONSTANTINE NICOLAIEVITCH, second son of the Czar Nicholas I.; was
appointed grand-admiral while but a boy; had command of the Baltic fleet
during the Crimean war; came under suspicion of sinister intriguing;
became insane, and died in seclusion (1827-1892).


CONSTANTINE PAULOVITCH, Grand-duke of Russia, son of Paul I.;
distinguished himself at Austerlitz; was commander-in-chief in Poland,
where he ruled as despot; waived his right to the throne in favour of his
brother Nicholas (1779-1831).


CONSTANTINE XIII., Palaeologus, the last of the Greek emperors; had
to defend Constantinople against a besieging force of 300,000 under
Mahomet II., and though he defended it bravely, the city was taken by
storm, and the Eastern empire ended in 1543.


CONSTANTINOPLE (1,000), capital of the Turkish empire, on the
Bosphorus, situated on a peninsula washed by the Sea of Marmora on the S.
and by the Golden Horn on the N., on the opposite side of which creek lie
the quarters of Galata and Pera, one of the finest commercial sites in
the world; it became the capital of the Roman empire under Constantine
the Great, who gave name to it; was capital of the Eastern empire from
the days of Theodosius; was taken by the crusaders in 1204, and by
Mahomet II. in 1452, at which time the Greek and Latin scholars fled the
city, carrying the learning of Greece and Rome with them, an event which
led to the revival of learning in Europe, and the establishment of a new
era--the Modern--in European history.


CONSTANTIUS CHLORUS, or THE PALE, Roman emperor; after a
struggle of three years reunited Britain with the empire, which had been
torn from it by Allectus; was equally successful against the Alemanni,
defeating them with great loss; died at York, on an expedition against
the Picts; was succeeded by Constantine, his son (250-305).


CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY, the legislative body which the National
Assembly of France resolved itself into in 1789, a name it assumed from
the task it imposed on itself, viz., of making a constitution, a task
which, from the nature of it proved impossible, as a constitution is an
entity which grows, and is not made, _nascitur, non fit_.


CONSUELO, the heroine of George Sand's novel of the name, her
masterpiece; the impersonation of the triumph of moral purity over
manifold temptations.


CONSUL, (1) one of the two magistrates of Rome elected annually
after the expulsion of the kings, and invested with regal power; (2) a
chief magistrate of the French Republic from 1799 to 1804; (3) one
commissioned to protect, especially the mercantile rights of the subjects
of a State in foreign country.


CONSULATE, name given to the French Government from the fall of the
Directory till the establishment of the Empire. At first there were three
provisional consuls, Bonaparte, Sieyes, and Roger Ducos; then three
consuls for ten years, Bonaparte, Cambaceres, and Lebrun, which was
dissolved with the establishment of the Empire on the 20th May 1804.


CONTARI`NI, an illustrious Venetian family, which furnished eight
Doges to the Republic, as well as an array of men eminent in the Church,
statecraft, generalship, art, and letters.


CONTE, NICOLAS JACQUES, a French painter; distinguished for his
mechanical genius, which was of great avail to the French army in Egypt
(1755-1805).


CONTI, an illustrious French family, a younger branch of the house
of Bourbon-Conde, all more or less distinguished as soldiers; FRANCOIS
LOUIS especially, who was a man of supreme ability both in war and
science, and had the merit to be elected king of Poland (1664-1709).


CONTINENTAL SYSTEM, Napoleon's scheme for interdicting all commerce
between the Continent and Great Britain, carried out with various issues
till the fall of Napoleon. See BERLIN and MILAN DECREES.


CONTRAT, SOCIAL, Rousseau's theory of society that it is based on
mere contract, each individual member of it surrendering his will to the
will of all, under protection of all concerned, a theory which led to the
conclusion that the rule of kings is an usurpation of the rights of the
community, and which bore fruit as an explosive in the Revolution at the
end of the century.


CONVENTION, NATIONAL, a revolutionary convention in France which, on
September 20, 1792, succeeded the Legislative Assembly, proclaimed the
Republic, condemned the king to death, succeeded in crushing the
royalists of La Vendee and the south, in defeating all Europe leagued
against France, and in founding institutions of benefit to France to this
day; it was dissolved on October 26, 1795, to make way for the Directory.


CONVERSATIONS LEXICON, a popular German encyclopaedia of 16 vols.,
started in 1796, and since 1808 published by Brockhaus, in Leipzig.


CONVERSION, "the grand epoch for a man," says Carlyle, "properly the
one epoch; the turning-point, which guides upwards, or guides downwards,
him and his activities for evermore."


CONVOCATION, an assemblage of the English clergy, with little or no
legislative power, summoned and prorogued by an archbishop under
authority of the Crown; one under the Archbishop of Canterbury, held at
Canterbury, and one under the Archbishop of York, held at York,
consisting each of two bodies, an Upper of bishops, and an Under of
lesser dignitaries and inferior clergy, in separate chambers, though they
originally met in one.


CONWAY, a port in Carnarvon, on the river Conway, with a massive
castle, one of those built by Edward I. to keep Wales in check; is a
favourite summer resort, and is amid beautiful scenery.


CONWAY, HUGH, the _nom de plume_ of Frederick Fargus, born in
Bristol; bred to the auctioneer business; author of "Called Back," a
highly sensational novel, and a success; gave up his business and settled
in London, where he devoted himself to literature, and the production of
similar works of much promise, but caught malarial fever at Monte Carlo
and died (1847-1885).


CONWAY, MONCURE, an American writer, born in Virginia; began life as
a Unitarian preacher; came to England as a lecturer on war; became leader
of the advanced school of thought, so called; was a great admirer of
Emerson, and wrote, among other works, "Emerson at Home and Abroad"; _b_.
1832.


CONYBEARE, WILLIAM DANIEL, an English clergyman, devoted to the
study of geology and palaeontology, and a Bampton lecturer (1787-1857).


CONYBEARE, WILLIAM JOHN, son of the preceding; author, along with
Dean Howson, of the "Life and Epistles of St. Paul," and of an "Essay on
Church Parties" (1815-1857).


COOK, DUTTON, novelist, dramatic author, and critic; born in London,
and bred a solicitor; contributed to several periodicals, and the
"Dictionary of National Biography" (1822-1883).


COOK, EDWARD T., journalist, born at Brighton; educated at Oxford;
had been on the editorial staff of the _Pall Mall Gazette_ and the
_Westminster Gazette_, became, in 1893, editor of the _Daily News_; is an
enthusiastic disciple of Ruskin; wrote "Studies on Ruskin"; _b_. 1857.


COOK, ELIZA, a writer of tales, verses, and magazine articles; born
in Southwark; daughter of a merchant; conducted, from 1849 to 1854, a
journal called by her name, but gave it up from failing health; enjoyed a
pension of L100 on the Civil List till her death; was the authoress of
"The Old Arm-Chair" and "Home in the Heart," both of which were great
favourites with the public, and did something for literature and
philanthropy by her _Journal_ (1818-1889).


COOK, JAMES, the distinguished English navigator, born at Marton,
Yorkshire; was the son of a farm labourer; began sea-faring on board a
merchantman; entered the navy in 1755, and in four years became a master;
spent some nine years in survey of the St. Lawrence and the coasts of
Newfoundland; in 1768, in command of the _Endeavour_, was sent out with
an expedition to observe the transit of Venus, and in 1772 as commander
of two vessels on a voyage of discovery to the South Seas; on his return,
receiving further promotion, he set out on a third voyage of farther
exploration in the Pacific, making many discoveries as far N. as Behring
Strait; lost his life, on his way home, in a dispute with the natives, at
Owhyhee, in the Sandwich Islands, being savagely murdered, a fate which
befell him owing to a certain quickness of temper he had displayed,
otherwise he was a man of great kindness of heart, and his men were
warmly attached to him (1728-1779).


COOK, JOSEPH, a popular lecturer, born near New York; delivered
Monday Lectures at Boston in the discussion of social questions, and the
alleged discrepancy between science and religion or revelation; _b_.
1838.


COOK, MOUNT, the highest point, 12,350 ft., in the Southern Alps,
Canterbury Island, New Zealand.


COOK STRAIT, strait between the North and the South Island, New
Zealand.


COOKE, SIR ANTONY, an eminent scholar, tutor to Edward VI.; of his
daughters, one was married to Lord Burleigh and another to Sir Nicholas
Bacon, who became the mother of Lord Bacon (1506-1576).


COOKE, BENJAMIN, composer, born in London; organist in Westminster
Abbey; author of "How Sleep the Brave," "Hark! the Lark," and other
glees, as well as some excellent church music (1739-1793).


COOKE, GEORGE FREDERICK, an actor, famous for his representation of
Richard III.; stood in his day next to Kemble in spite of his intemperate
habits (1756-1811).


COOKE, T. P., an actor in melodrama; began life at sea; took to the
stage; his most popular representations were William in "Black-eyed
Susan" and Long Tom Coffin in the "Pilot" (1786-1864).


COOLGARDIE, a mining district and head-quarters of rich gold-fields
in W. Australia.


COOLIES, labourers from India and China, who now emigrate in large
numbers, especially from China, often to where they are not wanted, and
where they, as in the British Colonies and the United States, are much
disliked, as they bring down the wages of native labourers.


COOMASSIE, the capital of the negro kingdom of Ashanti, 130 m. NNW.
of Cape Coast Castle; once a large populous place; was much reduced after
its capture by Wolseley in 1874, though it is being rebuilt.


COOPER, ANTHONY ASHLEY. See SHAFTESBURY.


COOPER, SIR ASTLEY, English surgeon, born in Norfolk; was great in
anatomy and a skilful operator, stood high in the medical profession;
contributed much by his writings to raise surgery to the rank of a
science; was eminent as a lecturer as well as a practitioner (1768-1841).


COOPER, JAMES FENIMORE, an American novelist, born in Burlington,
New Jersey; having a passion for the sea, he entered the navy as a
midshipman in 1808, but in three years resigned his commission, married,
and settled to literature; his novels, which are well known, achieved
instant popularity, made him a great favourite with boys, in which he
showed himself an expert in the narration of events, the description of
scenes, as well as in the delineation of character; he came to
loggerheads with the newspaper press, had recourse to actions for libel,
conducted his own cases himself, and was always successful (1789-1851).


COOPER, THOMAS, a self-taught man, born in Leicester; bred a
shoemaker; became a schoolmaster, a Methodist preacher, and then a
journalist; converted to Chartism; was charged with sedition, and
committed to prison for two years; wrote here "Purgatory of Suicides";
after liberation went about lecturing on politics and preaching
scepticism; returning to his first faith, he lectured on the Christian
evidences, and wrote an autobiography (1805-1892).


COOPER, THOMAS SIDNEY, a distinguished animal-painter, born in
Canterbury; struggled with adversity in early life: rose to be supreme in
his own department of art; he has written an account of his career; _b_.
1803.


COOPERAGE, a system of barter which has for some time gone on in the
North Seas, consisting of exchange of spirits and tobacco for other goods
or money, a demoralising traffic, which endeavours are now being made to
suppress.


COOPER'S HILL, a hill of slight elevation near Runnymede, with a
Government civil engineering college, originally for the training for the
service in India, now for education in other departments of the
Government service, forestry especially.


COORG (173), an inland high-lying province, about the size of Kent,
on the eastern slope of the W. Ghats, on the SW. border of Mysore, under
the Indian Government; it is covered with forests, infested with wild
animals; the natives, a fine race, are distinguished for their loyalty to
the British.


COOTE, SIR EYRE, a general, born in co. Limerick, Ireland;
distinguished himself at Plassey; gained victories over the French in
India; afterwards routed Hyder Ali at Porto Novo; died at Madras
(1726-1783).


COPE, CHARLES WEST, a painter, born at Leeds; his pictures have for
subjects historical or dramatic scenes, and were very numerous; executed
the frescoes that adorn the Peers' corridor at Westminster; was professor
of Painting to the Royal Academy (1811-1890).


COPE, SIR JOHN, a British general; was in command at Prestonpans,
and defeated by the Pretender there in 1745, in connection with which his
name is remembered in Scotland as not having been ready when the
Highlanders attacked him, by the song "Heigh! Johnnie Cowp, are ye wauken
yet?" _d_. 1760.


COPENHAGEN (380), the capital of Denmark, and the only large town in
it; lies low, and is built partly on the island of Seeland and partly on
the island of Amager, the channel between which forms a commodious
harbour; is a thriving place of manufacture and of trade, as its name
"Merchants' Haven" implies; has also a university, an arsenal, and
numerous public buildings.


COPERNICUS, NICOLAS, founder of modern astronomy, born at Thorn, in
Poland, and educated at Cracow and Bologna; became canon of Frauenburg,
on the Frisches Haff; studied medicine; was doctor to a wealthy uncle,
with whom he lived, and became his heir when he died; his chief interest
lay in the heavenly bodies, and his demonstrations regarding their
movements, which yet he deferred publishing till he was near his end; and
indeed it was only when he was unconscious and dying that the first
printed copy of the work was put into his hands; it was entitled "De
Orbium Revolutionibus," and was written in proof of the great first
principle of astronomy, that the sun is the centre of the solar system,
and that the earth and planets circle round it; the work was dedicated to
Pope Paul III., and was received with favour by the Catholic Church,
though, strange to say, it was denounced by Luther and Melanchthon as
contrary to the Scriptures of truth (1473-1543).


COPIAPO, a river, a village, a city, and a district in Chile.


COPLEY, JOHN SINGLETON, portrait and historical painter, born in
Boston, U.S.; painted Washington's portrait at the age of eighteen; came
to England in 1776, having previously sent over for exhibition sundry of
his works; painted portraits of the king and the queen; began the
historical works on which his fame chiefly rests, the most widely known
perhaps of which is the "Death of Chatham," now in the National Gallery
(1737-1815).


COPPEE, FRANCOIS, a poet, born in Paris; has produced several
volumes of poetry, excellent dramas in verse, and tales in prose; his
poetry is the poetry of humble life, and "has given poetic pleasure," as
Professor Saintsbury says, "to many who are not capable of receiving it
otherwise, while he has never sought to give that pleasure by unworthy
means"; _b_. 1842.


COPPER CAPTAIN, a Brummagem captain; the name given to Percy in
Beaumont and Fletcher's play, "Rule a Wife and Have a Wife."


COPPER NOSE, name given to Oliver Cromwell, from a brownish tinge on
his nose.


COPPERHEADS, secret foes in one's own camp, so called from a set of
serpents which conceal their purpose to attack.


COPPERMINE, a river in NW. Canada which falls into the Arctic Ocean
after a broken course of 250 m.


COPPET, a Swiss village in the Canton de Vaud, on the Lake of
Geneva; celebrated as the abode of Mme. de Stael, her burial-place and
that of Necker, her father.


COPTS, the Christian descendants of the ancient Egyptians, who are
Monophysites in belief, some regarding the Patriarch of Alexandria and
some the Pope as their head; they adhere to the ancient ritual, are
prelatic, sacramentarian, and exclusive; they speak Arabic, their
original Coptic being as good as dead, though the grammar is taught in
the schools.


COPYRIGHT, the sole right of an author or his heirs to publish a
work for a term of years fixed by statute, a book for 42 years, or the
author's lifetime and 7 years after, whichever is longer; copyright
covers literary, artistic, and musical property. By the Act an author
must present one copy of his work, if published, to the British Museum,
and one copy, if demanded, to the Bodleian Library, Oxford; the
University Library, Cambridge; the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh; and
Trinity College Library, Dublin.


COQUELIN, BENOIT CONSTANT, a noted French actor, born at Boulogne;
played in classical pieces and others, composed for himself in the
Theatre Francais from 1860 to 1886; since then in London, S. America, and
the United States; without a rival in the broader aspects of comedy; _b_.
1841.


COQUEREL, ATHANASE, a pastor of the French Reformed Church, born in
Paris, where he preached eloquently from 1830 till his death; was elected
in 1848 deputy for the Seine to the national Assembly, but retired from
political life after the _coup d'etat_; wrote a reply to Strauss
(1795-1858).


COQUEREL, ATHANASE, a Protestant pastor, son of preceding, born at
Amsterdam; celebrated for his liberal and tolerant views, too much so for
M. Guizot; edited Voltaire's letters on toleration; his chief work, "Jean
Calas et sa Famille" (1820-1875).


COQUIMBO (14), capital of a mining province of Chile (176) of the
name; exports minerals and cattle.


CORAIS, a distinguished Hellenist, born in Smyrna, of the mercantile
class; settled in Paris, where he devoted himself to awakening an
interest in Greek literature and the cause of the Greeks (1748-1833).


CORAM, THOMAS, English philanthropist, the founder of the Foundling
Hospital, born at Lyme Regis; a man of varied ventures by sea and land;
settled in London; was touched by the sufferings of the poor, where, with
warm support from Hogarth, he founded the said institution; his charity
so impoverished him that he ended his days as an object of charity
himself, being dependent on a small annuity raised by subscription
(1667-1751).


CORATO (30), a town in a fertile region in S. Italy, 25 m. W. of
Bari.


CORBLE-STEPS, or CROW-STEPS, steps ascending the gable of a
house, common in old Scotch gables as well as in the Netherlands and
elsewhere in old towns.


COR`BULO, a distinguished general under Claudius and Nero, who
conquered the Parthians; Nero, being jealous of him, invited him to
Corinth, where he found a death-warrant awaiting him, upon which he
plunged his sword into his breast and exclaimed, "Well deserved!" in 72
A.D.


CORCY`RA, an Ionian island, now CORFU (q. v.).


CORDAY, CHARLOTTE, a French heroine, born at St. Saturnin, of good
birth, granddaughter of Corneille; well read in Voltaire and Plutarch;
favoured the Revolution, but was shocked at the atrocities of the
Jacobins; started from Caen for Paris as an avenging angel; sought out
Marat, with difficulty got access to him, stabbed him to the heart as he
sat "stewing in slipper-bath," and "his life with a groan gushed out,
indignant, to the shades below"; when arrested, she "quietly
surrendered"; when questioned as to her motive, she answered, "I killed
one man to save a hundred thousand"; she was guillotined next day
(1763-1793).


CORDELIA, the youngest and favourite daughter of King Lear.


CORDELIERS, (1) the strictest branch of the Franciscan Order of
Monks, so called from wearing a girdle of knotted cord; (2) also a club
during the French Revolution, founded in 1789, its prominent members,
Danton, Camille Desmoulins, and Marat; was a secession from the Jacobin
Club, which was thought lukewarm, and met in what had been a convent of
the Cordeliers monks; it expired with Danton.


CORDERIUS, a grammarian, born in Normandy; being a Protestant
settled in Geneva and taught; author of Latin "Colloquies," once very
famous (1478-1567).


CORDILLERAS, the name of several chains of mountains in S. America.


CORDITE, a smokeless powder, invented by Sir F. A. Abel, being
composed principally of gun-cotton and glycerine.


CORDON BLUE, formerly the badge of the Order of the Holy Ghost, now
the badge of highest excellence in a cook.


CORDOUAN, a lighthouse at the mouth of the Gironde.


COR`DOVA (70), a city on the Parana, in the Argentine; also a town
(48) in Andalusia, Spain, on the right bank of the Guadalquivir, in a
province of the name, 80 m. NE. of Seville; once a Moorish capital, and
famous for its manufacture of goat leather; has a cathedral, once a
magnificent mosque.


COREA (6,511), an Eastern Asiatic kingdom occupying the mountainous
peninsula between the Yellow and Japan Seas, in the latitude of Italy,
with Manchuria on its northern border, a country as large as Great
Britain. The people, an intelligent and industrious race, are Mongols,
followers of Confucius and Buddha. After being for 300 years tributary to
China, it passed under Japanese influence, and by the Chinese defeat in
the war with Japan, 1894-95, was left independent. The climate is
healthy, but subject to extremes; rivers are ice-bound for four months.
Wheat, rice, and beans are grown. There are gold, silver, iron, and coal
mines, and great mineral wealth. There are extensive manufactures of
paper, and some silk industry. Three ports are open to foreigners; but
most of the trade is with Japan; exports hides, beans, and paper; imports
cotton goods. The capital is Seoul (193).


CORELLI, ARCANGELO, an Italian musical composer, celebrated for his
skill on the violin; his compositions mark a new musical epoch; he has
been called the father of instrumental music (1653-1713).


CORELLI, MARIE, a novelist, a prolific authoress, and very popular;
her first work "The Romance of Two Worlds," one of her latest "The
Sorrows of Satan"; _b_. 1864.


CORFE CASTLE, a village in the Isle of Purbeck, Dorsetshire, round a
castle now in ruins, and the scene of martyrdoms and murders not a few in
its day.


CORFU (78), the most northerly of the Ionian Islands and the
largest, 40 m. long, from 4 to 18 broad; was under the protection of
Britain, 1815-64; has since belonged to Greece; has a capital (79) of the
same name.


CORIN`NA, a poetess of ancient Greece, born in Boeotia; friend and
rival of Pindar; only a few fragments of her poetry remain.


CORINNE, the heroine and title of a novel of Mme. de Stael's, her
principal novel, in which she celebrates the praises of the great men and
great masterpieces of Italy; her heroine is the type of a woman inspired
with poetic ideas and the most generous sentiments.


CORINTH, an ancient city of Greece, and one of the most flourishing,
on an isthmus of the name connecting the Peloponnesus with the mainland;
a great centre of trade and of material wealth, and as a centre of luxury
a centre of vice; the seat of the worship of Aphrodite, a very different
goddess from Athene, to whom Athens was dedicated.


CORINTHIANS, EPISTLES TO THE, two epistles of St. Paul to the Church
he had established in Corinth, the chief object of which was to cleanse
it of certain schisms and impurities that had arisen, and to protest
against the disposition of many in it to depart from simple gospel which
they had been taught.


CORIOLA`NUS, a celebrated Roman general of patrician rank, who
rallied his countrymen when, in besieging Corioli, they were being driven
back, so that he took the city, and was in consequence called Coriolanus;
having afterwards offended the plebs, he was banished from the city; took
refuge among the people he had formerly defeated; joined cause with them,
and threatened to destroy the city, regardless of every entreaty to spare
it, till his mother, his wife, and the matrons of Rome overcame him by
their tears, upon which he withdrew and led back his army to Corioli,
prepared to suffer any penalty his treachery to them might expose him.


CORIOLI, a town of ancient Latium, capital of the Volsci.


CORK (73), a fine city, capital of a county (436) of the same name
in Munster, Ireland, on the Lee, 11 m. from its mouth; with a magnificent
harbour, an extensive foreign trade, and manufactures of various kinds.


CORMENIN, a French statesman and jurist, born at Paris; had great
influence under Louis Philippe; his pamphlets, signed _Timon_, made no
small stir; left a work on administrative law in France (1788-1886).


CORMONTAIGNE, a celebrated French engineer, born at Strasburg;
successor of Vauban (1696-1752).


CORNARO, an illustrious patrician family in Venice, from which for
centuries several Doges sprung.


CORN-CRACKER, the nickname of a Kentucky man.


CORNEILLE, PIERRE, the father of French tragedy, born at Rouen, the
son of a government legal official; was bred for the bar, but he neither
took to the profession nor prospered in the practice of it, so gave it up
for literature; threw himself at once into the drama; began by
dramatising an incident in his own life, and became the creator of the
dramatic art in France; his first tragedies are "The Cid," which indeed
is his masterpiece, "Horace," "Cinna," "Polyeucte," "Rodogune," and "Le
Menteur"; in his verses, which are instinct with vigour of conception as
well as sublimity of feeling, he paints men as they should be, virtuous
in character, brave in spirit, and animated by the most exalted
sentiments. Goethe contrasts him with Racine: "Corneille," he says,
"delineated great men; Racine, men of eminent rank." "He rarely provokes
an interest," says Professor Saintsbury, "in the fortunes of his
characters; it is rather in the way that they bear their fortune, and
particularly in a kind of haughty disdain for fortune itself... He shows
an excellent comic faculty at times, and the strokes of irony in his
serious plays have more of true humour in them than appears in almost any
other French dramatist" (1606-1684).


CORNEILLE, THOMAS, younger brother of the preceding, a dramatist,
whose merits were superior, but outshone by those of his brother
(1625-1709).


CORNELIA, the daughter of Scipio Africanus and the mother of the
GRACCHI (q. v.), the Roman matron who, when challenged by a
rival lady to outshine her in wealth of gems, proudly led forth her sons
saying, "These are my jewels"; true to this sentiment, it was as the
mother of the Gracchi she wished to be remembered, and is remembered, in
the annals of Rome.


CORNELIUS, PETER VON, a distinguished German painter, born at
Duesseldorf; early gave proof of artistic genius, which was carefully
fostered by his father; spent much time as a youth in studying and
copying Raphael; before he was 20 he decorated a church at Neuss with
colossal figures in chiaroscuro; in 1810 executed designs for Goethe's
"Faust"; in the year after went to Rome, where, along with others, he
revived the old art of fresco painting, in which he excelled his rivals;
the subjects of these were drawn from Greek pagan as well as Christian
sources, his "Judgment" being the largest fresco in the world; the
thought which inspires his cartoons, critics say, surpasses his power of
execution; it should be added, he prepared a set of designs to illustrate
the "Nibelungen" (1787-1867).


CORNELL UNIVERSITY, a university in Ithaca, New York State, founded
in 1868 at a cost of L152,000, named after its founder, Ezra Cornell; it
supports a large staff of teachers, and gives instruction in all
departments of science, literature, and philosophy; it provides education
to sundry specified classes free of all fees, as well as means of earning
the benefits of the institution to any who may wish to enjoy them.


CORN-LAWS, laws in force in Great Britain regulating the import and
export of corn for the protection of the home-producer at the expense of
the home-consumer, and which after a long and bitter struggle between
these two classes were abolished in 1846.


CORN-LAW RHYMER, THE, EBENEZER ELLIOTT (q. v.) who, in a
volume of poems, denounced the corn-laws and contributed to their
abolition.


CORNO, MONTE, the highest peak of the Apennines, 9545 ft.


CORNWALL (322), a county in the SW. extremity of England, forming a
peninsula between the English and the Bristol Channels, with a rugged
surface and a rocky coast, indented all round with more or less deep bays
inclosed between high headlands; its wealth lies not in the soil, but
under it in its mines, and in the pilchard, mackerel, and other fisheries
along its stormy shores; the county town is Bodmin (5), the largest
Penzance (12), and the mining centre Truro (11).


CORNWALL, BARRY, the _nom de plume_ of B. W. PROCTER (q. v.).


CORNWALLIS, LORD, an English general and statesman; saw service in
the Seven Years' and the American Wars; besieged in the latter at York
Town, was obliged to capitulate; became Governor-General of India, and
forced Tippoo Sahib to submit to humiliating terms; as Lord-Lieutenant of
Ireland crushed the rebellion of '98; re-appointed Governor-General of
India; died there (1738-1805).


COROMANDEL COAST, E. coast of Hindustan, extending from the Krishna
to Cape Comorin.


CORONATION CHAIR, a chair inclosing a stone carried off by Edward I.
from Scone in 1296, on which the sovereigns of England are crowned.


COROT, JEAN BAPTISTE, a celebrated French landscape-painter, born at
Paris; was 26 years of age before he began to apply himself to art, which
he did by study in Italy and Rome, returning to Paris in 1827, where he
began to exhibit, and continued to exhibit for nearly 50 years; it was
long before his pieces revealed what was in him and the secret of his
art; he appeared also as a poet as well as a painter, giving free play to
his emotions and moving those of others (1796-1875).


CORPS LEGISLATIF, the lower house of the French legislature,
consisting of deputies.


CORPUSCULAR PHILOSOPHY, the philosophy which accounts for physical
phenomena by the position and the motions of corpuscles.


CORR, ERIN, an eminent engraver, born in Brussels, of Irish descent;
spent 10 years in engraving on copper-plate Rubens's "Descent from the
Cross" (1793-1862).


CORRECTOR, ALEXANDER THE, Alexander Cruden, who believed he had a
divine mission to correct the manners of the world.


CORREGGIO, ANTONIO ALLEGRI DA, an illustrious Italian painter, born
at Correggio, in Modena; founder of the Lombard school, and distinguished
among his contemporaries for the grace of his figures and the harmony of
his colouring; he has been ranked next to Raphael, and it has been said
of him he perfected his art by adding elegance to truth and grandeur; he
is unrivalled in chiaroscuro, and he chose his subjects from pagan as
well as Christian legend (1494-1534).


CORRIB, LOUGH, an irregularly shaped lake in Galway and Mayo, 25 m.
long and from 1 to 6 m. broad, with stone circles near it.


CORRIENTES (300), a province of the Argentine Republic, between the
Parana and the Uruguay; also its capital (18), surrounded by
orange-groves; so called from the currents that prevail in the river,
along which steamers ply between it and Buenos Ayres.


CORRUGATED IRON, in general, sheet-iron coated with zinc.


CORSAIR, THE, a poem of Byron's, in which the author paints himself
in heroic colours as an adventurer who drowns reflection in the
intoxication of battle.


CORSICA (288), an island belonging to France, in the Mediterranean,
ceded to her by Genoa in 1768, but by position, race, and language
belongs to Italy; has been subject by turns to the powers that in
succession dominated that inland sea; is 116 m. long and 52 broad; it
abounds in mountains, attaining 9000 ft.; covered with forests and
thickets, which often serve as shelter for brigands; it affords good
pasturage, and yields olive-oil and wine, as well as chesnuts, honey, and
wax.


CORSICA PAOLI, a native of Corsica, who vainly struggled to achieve
the independence of his country, and took refuge in England, where he
enjoyed the society of the Johnson circle, and was much esteemed. See
PAOLI.


CORSSEN, WILLIAM PAUL, a learned German philologist, born at Bremen;
made a special study of the Latin languages, and especially the Etruscan,
which he laboured to prove was cognate with that of the Romans and of the
races that spoke it (1820-1875).


CORT, an eminent Dutch engraver, went to Venice, lived with Titian;
engraved some of his pictures; went to Rome and engraved Raphael's
"Transfiguration"; executed over 150 plates, all displaying great
accuracy and refinement (1536-1578).


CORTES, the name given in Spain and Portugal to the National
Assembly, consisting of nobles and representatives of the nation.


CORTES, a Spanish soldier and conqueror of Mexico, born in
Estremadura; went with Velasquez to Cuba; commanded the expedition to
conquer Mexico, and by burning all his ships that conveyed his men, cut
off all possibility of retreat; having conquered the tribes that he met
on landing, he marched on to the capital, which, after a desperate
struggle, he reduced, and laid waste and then swept the country, by all
which he added to the wealth of Spain, but by his cruelty did dishonour
to the chivalry of which Spain was once so proud (1485-1547).


CORTONA, PIETRO DA, an Italian painter, born at Cortona, in Tuscany,
and eminent as an architect also; decorated many of the finest buildings
in Rome (1596-1669).


CORUNA (34), a fortified town on NW. of Spain, with a commodious
harbour, where Sir John Moore fell in 1809 while defending the
embarkation of his army against Soult, and where his tomb is.


CORVEE, obligation as at one time enforced in France to render
certain services to Seigneurs, such as repairing of roads, abolished by
the Contituent Assembly.


CORYAT, THOMAS, an English traveller and wit, who, in his
"Crudities," quaintly describes his travels through France and Italy
(1577-1617).


CORYBANTES, priests of CYBELE (q. v.), whose religious
rites were accompanied with wild dances and the clashing of cymbals.


CORYDON, a shepherd in Virgil, name for a lovesick swain.


CORYPHAEUS, originally the leader of the chorus in a Greek drama, now
a leader in any dramatic company, or indeed in any art.


COS (10), an island in the AEgean Sea, birthplace of Hippocrates and
Apelles.


COSENZA (18), a town in Calabria, in a deep valley, where Alaric
died.


COSIN, JOHN, a learned English prelate, Dean of Peterborough,
deposed by the Puritans for his ritualistic tendencies; exiled for 10
years in Paris; returned at the Restoration, and was made Bishop of
Durham, where he proved himself a Bishop indeed, and a devoted supporter
of the Church which he adorned by his piety (1594-1672).


COSMAS, ST., Arabian physician and patron of surgeons, brother of
St. Damian; suffered martyrdom in 303. Festival, Sept. 27.


COSMAS INDICOPLEUSTES (i. e. voyager to India), an Egyptian monk
of the 6th century, born in Alexandria, singular for his theory of the
system of the world, which, in opposition to the Ptolemaic system, he
viewed as in shape like that of the Jewish Tabernacle, with Eden outside,
and encircled by the ocean, a theory he advanced as in conformity with
Scripture.


COSMO I., Grand-duke of Tuscany, head of the Republic of Florence,
of which he made himself absolute master, a post he held in defiance of
all opposition, in order to secure the independence of the state he
governed, as well as its internal prosperity (1519-1574).


COSMOGRAPHY, any theory which attempts to trace the system of things
back to its first principle or primordial element or elements.


COSQUIN, EMMANUEL, a French folk-lorist, and author of "Popular
Tales of Lorraine," in the introduction to which he argues for the theory
that the development as well as the origin of such tales is historically
traceable to India; _b_. 1841.


COSSACKS, a military people of mixed origin, chiefly Tartar and
Slav, who fought on horseback, in their own interest as well as that of
Russia, defending its interests in particular for centuries past in many
a struggle, and forming an important division of the Russian army.


COSTA RICA (262), a small republic of Central America; it is mostly
tableland; contains many volcanoes; is chiefly agricultural, though rich
in minerals.


COSTARD, a clown in "Love's Labour Lost," who apes the affected
court-wits of the time in a misappropriate style.


COSTELLO, LOUISA STUART, an English authoress; her descriptive
powers were considerable, and her novels had a historical groundwork
(1799-1870).


COSTER, _alias_ LAURENS JANSZOON, born at Haarlem, to whom his
countrymen, as against the claims of Gutenberg, ascribe the invention of
printing (1370-1440).


COSWAY, RICHARD, a distinguished miniature portrait-painter, born at
Tiverton; Correggio his model (1740-1821).


COTE D'OR, a range of hills in the NE. of France, connecting the
Cevennes with the Vosges, which gives name to a department (376) famed
for its wines.


COTENTIN, a peninsula NW. of Normandy, France, jutting into the
English Channel, now forms the northern part of the dep. La Manche, the
fatherland of many of the Norman conquerors of England.


COTES, ROGER, an English mathematician of such promise, that Newton
said of him, "If he had lived, we should have known something"
(1682-1716).


COTES DU NORD (618), a dep. forming part of Brittany; the chief
manufacture is linen.


COTIN, THE ABBE, a French preacher, born in Paris; a butt of the
sarcasm of Moliere and Boileau (1604-1682)


COTMAN, JOHN SELL, an English painter, born at Norwich; made
Turner's acquaintance; produced water-colour landscapes, growing in
repute; has been pronounced "the most gifted of the Norwich School"
(1782-1842).


COTOPAXI, a volcano of the Andes, in Ecuador, the highest and most
active in the world, nearly 20,000 ft., 35 m. SE. of Quito; it rises in a
perfect cone, 4400 ft. above the plateau of Quito.


COTSWOLD HILLS, in Gloucestershire, separating the Lower Severn from
the sources of the Thames; they are of limestone rock, 50 m. long, and
extend N. and S.


COTTA, CAIUS, a distinguished Roman orator, 1st century B.C.;
mentioned with honour by Cicero.


COTTA, German publisher, born at Stuttgart; established in Tuebingen;
published the works of Goethe, Schiller, Jean Paul, Herder, and others of
note among their contemporaries (1764-1832).


COTTIAN ALPS, the range N. of the Maritime between France and Italy.


COTTIN, SOPHIE, a celebrated French authoress; wrote, among other
romances, the well-known and extensively translated "Elizabeth; or, the
Exiles of Siberia," a wildly romantic but irreproachably moral tale
(1773-1807).


COTTLE, JOSEPH, a publisher and author; started business in Bristol;
published the works of Coleridge and Southey on generous terms; wrote in
his "Early Recollections" an exposure of Coleridge that has been severely
criticised and generally condemned (1770-1853).


COTTON, BISHOP, born at Chester; eminent as a master at Rugby under
Dr. Arnold, and as head-master at Marlborough College; was appointed
Bishop of Calcutta, an office he fulfilled zealously; was drowned in the
Ganges; he figures as "the young master" in "Tom Brown's School-days"
(1813-1866).


COTTON, CHARLES, a poet, born in Staffordshire; his poetry was of
the burlesque order, and somewhat gross; chiefly famous for his
translation of "Montaigne's Essays"; was friend and admirer of Isaak
Walton, and wrote a supplement to his "Angler" (1630-1687).


COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE, a distinguished antiquary, and founder of
the Cottonian Library, now in the British Museum, born at Denton; was a
friend of Camden, and assisted him in his great work; was a great
book-collector; was exposed to persecution for his presumed share in the
publication of an obnoxious book, of which the original was found in his
collection; had his books, in which he prided himself, taken from him, in
consequence of which he pined and died (1571-1631).


COUCY, an old noble family of Picardy, who had for device, "Roi ne
suis, ne duc, ne comte aussi; je suis le sire de Coucy." RAOUL, a
court-poet of the family in the 12th century, lost his life at the siege
of Acre in the third crusade.


COULOMB, a learned French physicist and engineer, born at Angouleme;
the inventor of the torsion balance, and to whose labours many
discoveries in electricity and magnetism are due; lived through the
French Revolution retired from the strife (1736-1806).


COUNCILS, CHURCH, assemblies of bishops to decide questions of
doctrine and ecclesiastical discipline. They are oecumenical, national,
or provincial, according as the bishops assembled represented the whole
Church, a merely national one, or a provincial section of it. Eastern:
Nice, 325 (at which Arius was condemned), 787; Constantinople, 381 (at
which Apollinaris was condemned), 553, 680, 869; Ephesus, 431 (at which
Nestorius was condemned); Chalcedon, 451 (at which Eutyches was
condemned). Western: Lateran, 1123, 1139, 1179, 1215, 1274; Synod of
Vienne, 1311; Constance, 1414; Basel, 1431-1443; Trent, 1545-1563;
Vatican, 1869.


COURAYES, a French Roman Catholic ecclesiastic who pled on behalf of
Anglican orders; was censured; fled to England, where he was welcomed,
and received academic honours (1681-1777).


COURBET, a French vice-admiral, born at Abbeville; distinguished
himself by his rapid movements and brilliant successes in the East
(1827-1885).


COURBET, GUSTAVE, French painter, born at Ornans; took to
landscape-painting; was head of the Realistic school; joined the Commune
in 1871; his property and pictures were sold to pay the damage done, and
especially to restore the Vendome Column; died an exile in Switzerland
(1819-1877).


COURIER, PAUL LOUIS, a French writer, born at Paris; began life as a
soldier, but being wounded at Wagram, retired from the army, and gave
himself to letters; distinguished himself as the author of political
pamphlets, written with a scathing irony such as has hardly been
surpassed, which brought him into trouble; was assassinated on his estate
by his gamekeeper (1772-1825).


COURLAND (637), a partly wooded and partly marshy province of
Russia, S. of the Gulf of Riga; the population chiefly German, and
Protestants; agriculture their chief pursuit.


COURT DE GEBELIN, a French writer, born at Nimes, author of a work
entitled "The Primitive World analysed and compared with the Modern
World" (1725-1784).


COURTNEY, WILLIAM, archbishop of Canterbury, no match for Wickliffe
in debate, but had his revenge in persecuting his followers (1341-1396).


COURTOIS, JACQUES, a French painter of battle-pieces; became a
Jesuit, died a monk (1621-1676).


COURTRAIS (29), a Belgian town on the Lys.


COUSIN, VICTOR, a French philosopher, born in Paris; founder of an
eclectic school, which derived its doctrines partly from the Scottish
philosophy and partly from the German, and which Dr. Chalmers in his
class-room one day characterised jocularly as neither Scotch nor German,
but just half seas over; he was a lucid expounder, an attractive
lecturer, and exerted no small influence on public opinion in France; had
a considerable following; retired from public life in 1848, and died at
Cannes; he left a number of philosophic works behind him, the best known
among us "Discourses on the True, the Beautiful, and the Good"
(1792-1867).


COUSIN MICHAEL, a disparaging designation of our German kindred, as
slow, heavy, unpolished, and ungainly.


COUSIN-MONTAUBAN, a French general, commanded the Chinese expedition
of 1860, and, after a victory over the Chinese, took possession of Pekin
(1796-1878).


COUSINS, SAMUEL, a mezzotint engraver, born at Exeter; engraved
"Bolton Abbey," "Marie Antoinette in the Temple," and a number of plates
after eminent painters; left a fund to aid poor artists (1801-1880).


COUSTON, the name of three eminent French sculptors: NICOLAS
(1658-1733); GUILLAUME, father (1678-1746); and GUILLAUME, son
(1716-1777).


COUTHON, GEORGES, a violent revolutionary, one of a triumvirate with
Robespierre and St. Just, who would expel every one from the Jacobin Club
who could not give evidence of having done something to merit hanging,
should a counter-revolution arrive; was paralysed in his limbs from
having had to spend a night "sunk to the middle in a cold peat bog" to
escape detection as a seducer; trapped for the guillotine; tried to make
away with himself under a table, but could not (1756-1794).


COUTTS, THOMAS, a banker, born in Edinburgh, his father having been
Lord Provost of that city; joint-founder and eventually sole manager of
the London banking house, Coutts & Co.; left a fortune of L900,000
(1735-1822).


COUVADE, a custom among certain races of low culture in which a
father before and after childbirth takes upon himself the duties and
cares of the mother.


COUZA, PRINCE, born at Galatz, hereditary prince of Moldavia and
Wallachia; reigned from 1858 to 1860; died in exile, 1873.


COVENANT, SOLEMN LEAGUE AND, an engagement, with representatives
from Scotland, on the part of the English Parliament to secure to the
Scotch the terms of their National Covenant, and signed by honourable
members in St. Margaret's Church, Westminster, September 25, 1643, on the
condition of assistance from the Scotch in their great struggle with the
king.


COVENANT, THE NATIONAL, a solemn engagement on the part of the
Scottish nation subscribed to by all ranks of the community, the first
signature being appended to it in the Greyfriars' Churchyard, Edinburgh,
on February 28, 1638, to maintain the Presbyterian Church and to resist
all attempts on the part of Charles I. to foist Episcopacy upon it; it
was ratified by the Scottish Parliament in 1640, and subscribed by
Charles II. in 1650 and 1651.


COVENANTERS, a body of strict Presbyterians who held out against the
breach of the Solemn League and Covenant.


COVENT GARDEN, properly Convent Garden, as originally the garden of
Westminster Abbey, the great fruit, flower, and vegetable market of
London; is one of the sights of London early on a summer morning.


COVENTRY (55), a town in Warwickshire, 181/2 m. SE. of Birmingham;
famous for the manufacture of ribbons and watches, and recently the chief
seat of the manufacture of bicycles and tricycles; in the old streets are
some quaint old houses; there are some very fine churches and a number of
charitable institutions.


COVENTRY, SIR JOHN, a member of the Long Parliament; when, as a
member of Parliament in Charles II.'s reign, he made reflections on the
profligate conduct of the king, he was set upon by bullies, who slit his
nose to the bone; a deed which led to the passing of the Coventry Act,
which makes cutting and maiming a capital offence (1640-1682).


COVERDALE, MILES, translator of the English Bible, born in
Yorkshire; his translation was the first issued under royal sanction,
being dedicated to Henry VIII.; done at the instance of Thomas Cromwell,
and brought out in 1535, and executed with a view to secure the favour of
the authorities in Church and State, displaying a timid hesitancy
unworthy of a manly faith in the truth; both he and his translation
nevertheless were subjected to persecution, 2500 copies of the latter,
printed in Paris, having been seized by the Inquisition and committed to
the flames (1487-1568).


COVERLEY, SIR ROGER DE, member of the club under whose auspices the
_Spectator_ is professedly edited; represents an English squire of Queen
Anne's reign.


COWELL, JOHN, an English lawyer, author of "Institutes of the Laws
of England" and of a law dictionary burnt by the common hangman for
matter in it derogatory to the royal authority; _d_. 1611.


COWEN, FREDERICK HYMEN, a popular English composer, born in
Kingston, Jamaica; his works consist of symphonies, cantatas, oratories,
as well as songs, duets, &c.; is conductor of the Manchester Subscription
Concerts in succession to Sir Charles Halle; _b_. 1852.


COWES, a watering-place in the N. of the Isle of Wight, separated by
the estuary of Medina into E. and W.; engaged in yacht-building, and the
head-quarters of the Royal Yacht Club.


COWLEY, ABRAHAM, poet and essayist, born in London; a contemporary
of Milton, whom he at one time outshone, but has now fallen into neglect;
he was an ardent royalist, and catered to the taste of the court, which,
however, brought him no preferment at the Restoration; he was a master of
prose, and specially excelled in letter-writing; he does not seem to have
added much to the literature of England, except as an essayist, and in
this capacity has been placed at the head of those who cultivated that
clear, easy, and natural style which culminated in Addison (1618-1667).


COWLEY, HENRY WELLESLEY, EARL, an eminent diplomatist, brother of
the Duke of Wellington; served as a diplomatist in Vienna,
Constantinople, and Switzerland, and was ambassador to France from 1852
to 1867 (1804-1884).


COWPER, WILLIAM, a popular English poet, born at Great
Berkhampstead, Hertford, of noble lineage; lost his mother at six, and
cherished the memory of her all his days; of a timid, sensitive nature,
suffered acutely from harsh usage at school; read extensively in the
classics; trained for and called to the bar; was appointed at 32 a clerk
to the House of Lords; qualifying for the duties of the appointment
proved too much for him, and he became insane; when he recovered, he
retired from the world to Huntingdon beside a brother, where he formed an
intimacy with a family of the name of Unwin, a clergyman in the place; on
Mr. Unwin's death he removed with the family to Olney, in
Buckinghamshire, where he lived as a recluse and associated with the Rev.
John Newton and Mrs. Unwin; shortly after he fell insane again, and
continued so for two years; on his recovery he took to gardening and
composing poems, his first the "Olney Hymns," the melancholy being
charmed away by the conversation of a Lady Austin, who came to live in
the neighbourhood; it was she who suggested his greatest poem, the
"Task"; then followed other works, change of scene and associates, the
death of Mrs. Unwin, and the gathering of a darker and darker cloud, till
he passed away peacefully; it is interesting to note that it is to this
period his "Lines to Mary Unwin" and his "Mother's Picture" belong
(1731-1800).


COX, DAVID, an eminent landscape painter, rated by some next to
Turner, born at Birmingham; began his art as a scene-painter; painted as
a landscapist first in water-colour, then in oil; many of his best works
are scenes in N. Wales; his works have risen in esteem and value; an
ambition of his was to get L100 for a picture, and one he got only L20
for brought L3602 (1793-1830).


COX, SIR GEORGE, an English mythologist, specially distinguished for
resolving the several myths of Greece and the world into idealisations of
solar phenomena; he has written on other subjects, all of interest, and
is engaged with W. T. Brande on a "Dictionary of Science, Literature, and
Art"; _b_. 1827.


COXCIE, MICHAEL, a celebrated Flemish painter, born at Mechlin
(1497-1592).


COXE, HENRY OCTAVIUS, librarian, became assistant-librarian of the
Bodleian Library, Oxford, in 1838, and ultimately head-librarian in 1860;
under his direction the catalogue, consisting of 720 folio volumes, was
completed; held this post till his death; has edited several works of
value; is one of Dean Burgon's "Twelve Good Men" (1811-1881).


COXE, WILLIAM, a historical writer, heavy but painstaking, born in
London; wrote "History of the House of Austria" and the "Memoirs of
Marlborough," and on "Sir Robert Walpole and the Pelham Administrations"
(1747-1828).


COXWELL, a celebrated English aeronaut; bred a dentist; took to
ballooning; made 700 ascents; reached with Glaisher an elevation of 7 m.;
_b_. 1819.


COZENS, JOHN ROBERT, a landscape painter, a natural son of Peter the
Great; pronounced by Constable the greatest genius that ever touched
landscape, and from him Turner confessed he had learned more than from
any other landscapist; his mind gave way at last, and he died insane
(1752-1801).


CRABBE, GEORGE, an English poet, born at Aldborough, in Suffolk;
began life as apprentice to an apothecary with a view to the practice of
medicine, but having poetic tastes, he gave up medicine for literature,
and started for London with a capital of three pounds; his first
productions in this line not meeting with acceptance, he was plunged in
want; appealing in vain for assistance in his distress, he fell in with
Burke, who liberally helped him and procured him high patronage, under
which he took orders and obtained the living of Trowbridge, which he held
for life, and he was now in circumstances to pursue his bent; his
principal poems are "The Library," "The Village," "The Parish Register,"
"The Borough," and the "Tales of the Hall," all, particularly the earlier
ones, instinct with interest in the lives of the poor, "the sacrifices,
temptations, loves, and crimes of humble life," described with the most
"unrelenting" realism; the author in Byron's esteem, "though Nature's
sternest painter, yet the best" (1754-1832).


CRACOW (75), a city in Galicia, the old capital of Poland; where the
old Polish kings were buried, and the cathedral of which contains the
graves of the most illustrious of the heroes of the country and
Thorwaldsen's statue of Christ; a large proportion of the inhabitants are
Jews.


CRADLE MOUNTAIN, a mountain in the W. of Tasmania.


CRAIG, JOHN, a Scottish Reformer, educated at St. Andrews, and
originally a Dominican monk; had been converted to Protestantism by study
of Calvin's "Institutes," been doomed to the stake by the Inquisition,
but had escaped; the coadjutor in Edinburgh of Knox, and his successor in
his work, and left a confession and catechism (1512-1580).


CRAIG, SIR THOMAS, an eminent Scottish lawyer, author of a treatise
on the "Jus Feudale," which has often been reprinted, as well as three
others in Latin of less note; wrote in Latin verse a poem on Queen Mary's
marriage to Darnley (1538-1608).


CRAIGENPUTTOCK, a craig or whinstone hill of the puttocks (small
hawks), "a high moorland farm on the watershed between Dumfriesshire and
Galloway, 10 m. from Dumfries," the property for generations of a family
of Welshes, and eventually that of their heiress, Jane Welsh Carlyle,
"the loneliest spot in all the British dominions," which the Carlyles
made their dwelling-house in 1828, where they remained for seven years,
and where "Sartor" was written. "It is certain," Carlyle says of it long
after, "that for living and thinking in I have never since found in the
world a place so favourable.... How blessed," he exclaims, "might poor
mortals be in the straitest circumstances if their wisdom and fidelity to
heaven and to one another were adequately great!"


CRAIK, GEORGE LITTLE, an English author, born in Fife, educated at
St. Andrews; settled early in London as a litterateur; was associated
with Charles Knight in his popular literary undertakings; was author of
the "Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties," and the "History of
English Literature and Learning"; edited "Pictorial History of England,"
contributed to "Penny Cyclopaedia," and became professor of English
Literature, Queen's College, Belfast (1799-1866).


CRAIK, MRS., _nee_ MULOCK, born at Stoke-upon-Trent; authoress
of "John Halifax, Gentleman," her chief work, which has had, and
maintains, a wide popularity; married in 1865 a nephew and namesake of
the preceding, a partner of the publishing house of Macmillan & Co.;
wrote for the magazines, besides some 14 more novels (1826-1887).


CRAIL, a little old-fashioned town near the East Neuk of Fife, where
James Sharp was minister; a decayed fishing-place, now a summer resort.


CRAMER, JOHANN BAPTIST, a distinguished German composer and pianist
(1771-1858).


CRANACH, LUCAS, a celebrated German painter, born at Kronach, in the
bishopric of Bamberg; was patronised by Frederick the Wise, Elector of
Saxony, whom he accompanied in 1493 to the Holy Land; was engraver as
well as painter, skilled in portraiture as well as in historical scenes;
was intimately associated with the German reformers Luther and
Melanchthon, whose portraits he painted among others; the works of his
that remain are chiefly altar-pieces; his chief work is the "Crucifixion"
in Weimar, where he died (1472-1553).


CRANE, ICHABOD, a tall, lean, lank, Yankee schoolmaster in Irving's
"Legend of Sleepy Hollow."


CRANE, WALTER, poet and painter; has published various illustrated
books and poems illustrated by himself, and is an authority on decorative
art; _b_. 1845.


CRANMER, THOMAS, archbishop of Canterbury, born in Nottinghamshire;
educated at Jesus College, Cambridge; recommended himself to Henry VIII.
by favouring his divorce, writing in defence of it, and pleading for it
before the Pope, the latter in vain, as it proved; on his return was
elevated to the archbishopric, in which capacity he proved a zealous
promoter of the Reformation, by having the Bible translated and
circulated, and by the suppression of monasteries; pronounced sentence of
divorce of Catharine, and confirmed the king's marriage with Anne Boleyn;
by these and other compliances he kept the favour of Henry, but on the
accession of Mary he was committed to the Tower and persuaded to recant,
and even signed a recantation, but on being called to recant in public,
and refusing to do so, he was dragged to the stake, thrust his right hand
into the flames, and exclaimed, "Oh, this unworthy hand" (1489-1566).


CRANNOGE, a species of lake-dwelling and stronghold, of which
remains are found in Scotland and Ireland.


CRAPAUD, JEAN, a nickname of the Frenchmen.


CRASHAW, RICHARD, a minor poet, born in London; bred for the English
Church; went to Paris, where he became a Roman Catholic; fell into
pecuniary difficulties, but was befriended by Cowley and recommended to a
post; was an imitator of George Herbert, and his poems were of the same
class, but more fantastical; his principal poems were "Steps to the
Temple" and the "Delights of the Muses"; both Milton and Pope are
indebted to him (1616-1650).


CRASSUS, LUCIUS LICINIUS, the greatest Roman orator of his day,
became consul 55 B.C.; during his consulship a law was passed requiring
all but citizens to leave Rome, an edict which provoked the Social War
(140-91 B.C.).


CRASSUS, MARCUS LICINIUS, the triumvir with Pompey and Caesar; was
avaricious, and amassed great wealth; appointed to the province of Syria,
provoked out of cupidity war with the Parthians, in which he was
treacherously slain; Orodes, the king, cut off his head, and poured
melted gold into his mouth, saying as he did so, "Now sate thyself with
the metal of which thou wert so greedy when alive" (115-53 B.C.).


CRATES, a Greek cynic philosopher, disciple of Diogenes; 4th century
B.C.


CRATINUS, a Greek comic poet, born at Athens; limited the actors in
a piece to three, and the first to introduce into the drama attacks on
public men, wrote also satires on vice (519-424 B.C.).


CRATIPPUS, a Peripatetic philosopher of Mytilene, contemporary of
Pompey and Cicero; soothed the sunken spirit of the former after the
defeat at Pharsalia with the consolations of philosophy.


CRATYLUS, a dialogue of Plato's on the connection between language
and thought.


CRAWFORD, MARION, a novelist, born in Tuscany, of American origin,
son of the succeeding; spent a good deal of his early years in India, and
now lives partly in New York and partly in Italy; his works, which are
numerous, are chiefly novels, his first "Mr. Isaacs" (1882), original and
striking; an able writer, and a scholarly; _b_. 1854.


CRAWFORD, THOMAS, an American sculptor, studied at Rome under
Thorwaldsen; his "Orpheus in Search of Eurydice" brought him into notice,
and was followed by an array of works of eminent merit; died in London
from a tumour on the brain, after being struck with blindness
(1814-1857).


CRAWFORD AND BALCARRES, EARL OF, better known as Lord Lindsay, and
as the author of "Letters from the Holy Land," "Progression by
Antagonism," and "Sketches of the History of Christian Art"; died at
Florence, and was entombed at Dunecht, whence his body was abstracted and
found again in a wood near by after a seven months' search (1812-1880).


CRAYER, CASPAR DE, a celebrated Flemish painter, born at Antwerp;
pictures and altar-pieces by him are to be seen in Brussels and Ghent
(1582-1669).


CREAKLE, MR., a bullying schoolmaster in "David Copperfield."


CREASY, SIR EDWARD, chief-justice of Ceylon, author of "The Fifteen
Decisive Battles of the World," "Rise and Progress of the British
Constitution," &c. (1812-1878).


CREATIN, a substance found in the muscles of vertebrate animals, but
never in invertebrate.


CREBILLON, a French dramatist, born at Dijon, bred to the law,
devoted to literature and the composition of tragedies, of which he
produced several, mostly on classical subjects, such as "Atreus and
Thyestes," "Electra," of unequal merit, though at times of great power;
he ranked next Voltaire among the dramatists of the time (1674-1762).


CRECY, a French village, 12 m. NE. of Abbeville, where Edward III.,
with 30,000, defeated the French with 68,000, and destroyed the flower of
the chivalry of France, Aug. 26, 1346.


CREDIT FONCIER, a system of credit originating in France on the
security of land, whereby the loan is repayable so that principal and
interest are extinguished at the same time.


CREECH, WILLIAM, an Edinburgh bookseller, for 40 years the chief
publisher in the city; published the first Edinburgh edition of Burns's
poems (1745-1815).


CREEKS, a tribe of American Indians settled in Indian territory.


CREIGHTON, MANDELL, bishop of London, born at Carlisle; previously
bishop of Peterborough; has written on Simon de Montfort, on Wolsey, and
on the Tudors and the Reformation, but his great work is the "History of
the Papacy from the Great Schism to the Sack of Rome," a work of great
value; _b_. 1843.


CREMIEUX, a French advocate and politician, born at Nimes, of Jewish
birth; a member of the Provisional Government of 1848, and of the
National Defence in 1870; took a deep interest in the destiny of his race
(1796-1880).


CREMONA, old town on the Po, in Lombardy, 46 m. SE. of Milan;
interesting for its churches, with their paintings and frescoes; noted at
one time for the manufacture of violins.


CREMORNE (37), gardens in Chelsea; a popular place of amusement, now
closed.


CREOLE STATE, Louisiana, U.S.


CRESCENT CITY, New Orleans, U.S., as originally occupying a convex
bend of the Mississippi.


CRESCENTINI, a celebrated Italian soprano (1769-1846).


CRESCENTIUS, a patrician of Rome who, in the 10th century, sought to
destroy the imperial power and restore the republic; on this he was
defeated by Otho III., to whom he surrendered on promise of safety, but
who hanged and beheaded him; Stephano, his widow, avenged this treachery
by accepting Otho as her lover, and then poisoning him.


CRESPI, GIUSEPPE, an Italian painter; copied the works of Correggio,
Caracci, and other masters (1665-1747).


CRESWELL, SIR CRESWELL, judge, born in Newcastle; represented
Liverpool in Parliament; was raised to the bench by Peel, and, on the
establishment of the Divorce Court, was in 1858 named first judge
(1794-1863).


CRESWICK, THOMAS, an English landscape painter, born in Sheffield;
simple, pleasantly-suggestive, and faithfully-painted scenes from nature
were the subjects of his art; was employed a good deal in book
illustrations (1811-1869).


CRETE or CANDIA (295), a mountainous island in the
Mediterranean, 160 m. long and from 7 to 30 m. broad; in nominal
subjection to Turkey after 1669, it was in perpetual revolt. The rising
of 1895 led to the intervention of the great powers of Europe, and the
Turkish troops having been withdrawn in 1898 under pressure from Great
Britain, Russia, France, and Italy, Prince George of Greece was appointed
High Commissioner, ruling on behalf of these powers. Turkey still retains
the nominal suzerainty.


CRETINISM, a disease prevalent in valleys as those of the Alps,
characterised by mental imbecility, and associated with abnormal and
arrested physical development.


CREUSA, a wife of AEneas, fell behind her husband, lost her way in
escaping from Troy, and perished.


CREUSOT, LE (18), a town in the dep. Saone-et-Loire, near Autun,
which owes its importance to the large iron-works established there; is a
district rich in coal and iron.


CREUZER, a learned German philologist, born at Marburg; became
professor of Ancient History and Philology at Heidelberg; his chief work,
and one by which he is most widely known, "Symbolik und Mythologie der
Alten Voelker, besonders der Griechen," "Symbolism and Mythology of
Ancient Peoples, especially the Greeks"; left an autobiography
(1771-1858).


CREWE (29), a town in Cheshire, 43 m. SE. of Liverpool, a great
railway junction, and where the London and North-Western Railway Company
have their works.


CRICHTON, JAMES, surnamed The Admirable, a Scotchman of gentle, even
noble birth, educated at St. Andrews, had George Buchanan for tutor;
early developed the most extraordinary gifts of both body and mind;
travelled to Paris, Rome, Venice, Milan, and Mantua; astonished every one
by his strength and skill as an athlete, and his dexterity and agility in
debate; at Mantua he became tutor to the son of the Duke, when one night
he was attacked in the streets by a band of masked men, whom he overcame
by his skill, recognised his pupil among them, and presented to him his
sword, upon which, it is said, the young man immediately ran him through
with it (1560-1585).


CRIEFF (5), a town in Perthshire, at the foot of the Grampians, 18
m. W. of Perth, amid exquisite scenery; has a climate favourable for
invalids.


CRILLON, a French military captain, born at Mars, in Provence;
distinguished himself through five reigns, those of Henry II., Francis
II., Charles IX., Henry III., and Henry IV., of the last of whom he
became companion in arms, who designated him _Le brave des braves_, and
who wrote to him this famous note after the victory of Arques: "Where
were you, brave Crillon? we have conquered, and you were not there."
(1541-1615).


CRIMEA (250), a peninsula in the S. of Russia, almost surrounded by
the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, being connected with the mainland by
the narrow isthmus of Perekop; has a bold and precipitous coast 650 m. in
length; is barren in the N., but fertile and fruitful in the S.;
population chiefly Russians and Tartars.


CRIMEAN WAR, a war carried on chiefly in the Crimea, on the part of
Turkey aided by Britain and France, in which Sardinia eventually joined
them, against the encroachments of Russia in the E., and which was
proclaimed against Russia, March 24, 1854, and ended by the fall of
Sebastopol, September 8, 1855, the treaty of peace following having been
signed at Paris, March 1856.


CRINAN CANAL, a canal for vessels of light burden, 9 m. long, from
Loch Fyne, in Argyllshire, constructed to avoid sailing round the Mull of
Kintyre, thereby saving a distance of 115 m.


CRISPI, FRANCESCO, an Italian statesman, born in Sicily; co-operated
with Garibaldi in the Sicilian Revolution, and since active as a member
of the Government in the kingdom of Italy; _b_. 1819.


CRISPIN, the patron saint of shoemakers, of noble birth, who with
his brother had to flee from persecution in Rome to Gaul, where they
settled at Soissons; preached to the people and supported themselves by
shoemaking; they finally suffered martyrdom in 287. Festival, Oct. 25.


CRITIAS, a pupil of Socrates, who profited so little by his master's
teaching that he became the most conspicuous for his cruelty and rapacity
of all the thirty tyrants set up in Athens by the Spartans
(450-402 B.C.).


CRITON, a rich Athenian, friend and disciple of Socrates; supported
him by his fortune, but could not persuade him to leave the prison,
though he had procured the means of escape.


CROA`TIA AND SLAVONIA (2,201), a Hungarian crownland, lying between
the Drave and Save, tributaries of the Danube, and stretching westward to
the Adriatic. It is half as large as Ireland, wooded and mountainous,
with marshy districts along the river courses. The soil is fertile,
growing cereals, fibres, tobacco, and grapes; silkworms and bees are a
source of wealth; horses, cattle, and swine are raised in large numbers.
The province is poor in minerals, and lacks a harbour. The people are
Slavs, of Roman Catholic faith; backward in education, but showing signs
of progress.


CROCKETT, SAMUEL RUTHERFORD, novelist, born near New Galloway,
Kirkcudbright; bred for the Church, and for some time Free Church
minister at Penicuik, Midlothian, a charge he resigned in 1895, having
previously published a volume of sketches entitled "The Stickit
Minister," which was so received as to induce him to devote himself to
literature, as he has since done with more or less success; _b_. 1859.


CROESUS, the last of the kings of Lydia, in the 6th century B.C.;
celebrated for his wealth, so that his name became a synonym for a man
overwhelmed by the favours of fortune; being visited by Solon, he asked
him one day if he knew any one happier than he was, when the sage
answered, "No man can be counted happy till after death." Of the truth of
this Croesus had ere long experience; being condemned to death by Cyrus,
who had defeated him and condemned him to be burnt, and about to be led
to the burning pile, he called out thrice over the name of Solon; when
Cyrus, having learned the reason, moved with pity, ordered his release,
retained him among his counsellors, and commended him when dying to the
care of his son.


CROKER, JOHN WILSON, a politician and man of letters, born in
Galway, though of English descent; bred for the bar; wrote in advocacy of
Catholic emancipation; represented Downpatrick in Parliament; was in 1809
appointed Secretary to the Admiralty, a post he held for 20 years; was
one of the founders of the _Quarterly Review_, to which, it is said, he
contributed 200 articles; edited Boswell's "Life of Johnson" with Notes;
was an obstinate Tory, satirised by Disraeli and severely handled by
Macaulay; founded the Athenaeum Club (1780-1857).


CROKER, T. CROFTON, Irish folk-lorist, born in Cork; held a
well-paid clerkship in the Admiralty; collected and published stories,
legends, and traditions of the S. of Ireland; he wrote with a humour
which was heartily Irish; his most original work being "The Adventures of
Barney Mahoney"; he was a zealous antiquary; he was a brilliant
conversationalist (1798-1854).


CROLL, JAMES, a geologist, born near Coupar-Angus; contributed
materially to geology by his study of the connection between alterations
of climate and geological changes (1821-1890).


CROLY, GEORGE, a versatile author; designed for the Church; took to
literature, and wrote in all kinds, poetry, biography, and romance; his
best romance "Salathiel"; died rector of St. Stephen's, Walbrook
(1780-1860).


CROMARTY, a county in the N. of Scotland, consisting of ten
fragments scattered up and down Ross-shire; the county town, the
birthplace of Hugh Miller, being on the N. side of Cromarty Firth, which
opens eastward into the Moray Firth, and forms a large harbour 1 m. long
and 7 broad, protected at the mouth by two beetling rocks called Sutors,
one on each side, 400 and 463 ft. high.


CROME, JOHN, usually called Old Crome, a landscape-painter, born in
Norwich, of poor parents; began as a house-painter and then a
drawing-master; one of the founders of the Norwich Society of Artists;
took his subjects from his native county, and treated them with fidelity
to nature; his pictures have risen in value since his death (1768-1821).


CROMPTON, SAMUEL, inventor of the spinning-mule, born near Bolton;
for five years he worked at his project, and after he got it into shape
was tormented by people prying about him and trying to find out his
secret; at last a sum was raised by subscription to buy it, and he got
some L60 for it, by which others became wealthy, while he had to spend,
and end, his days in comparative poverty, all he had to subsist on being
a life annuity of L63 which some friends bought him (1753-1827).


CROMWELL, OLIVER, Lord-Protector of the commonwealth of England,
born at Huntingdon, the son of Robert Cromwell, the younger son of Sir
Henry Cromwell, and of Elizabeth Steward, descended from the royal family
of Scotland, their third child and second boy; educated at Huntingdon and
afterwards at Cambridge; left college at his father's death, and occupied
himself in the management of his paternal property; entered Parliament in
1629, and represented Cambridge in 1640, where to oppose the king he, by
commission in 1642 from Essex, raised a troop of horse, famous afterwards
as his "Ironsides"; with these he distinguished himself, first at Marston
Moor in 1644, and next year at Naseby; crushed the Scots at Preston in
1648, who had invaded the country in favour of the king, now in the hands
of the Parliament, and took Berwick; sat at trial of the king and signed
his death-warrant, 1649; sent that same year to subdue rebellion in
Ireland, he sternly yet humanely stamped it out; recalled from Ireland,
he set out for Scotland, which had risen up in favour of Charles II., and
totally defeated the Scots at Dunbar, Sept. 3, 1650, after which Charles
invaded England and the Royalists were finally beaten at Worcester, Sept.
3, 1651, upon which his attention was drawn to affairs of government;
taking up his residence at Hampton Court, his first step was to dissolve
the Rump, which he did by military authority in 1653; a new Parliament
was summoned, which also he was obliged to dismiss, after being declared
Lord-Protector; from this time he ruled mainly alone, and wherever his
power was exercised, beyond seas even, it was respected; at last his
cares and anxieties proved too much for him and wore him out, he fell ill
and died, Sept. 3, 1658, the anniversary of his two great victories at
Dunbar and Worcester; they buried him in Westminster, but his body was
dug up at the Restoration, hanged at Tyburn, and buried under the
gallows; such treatment his body was subjected to after he was gone, and
for long after he was no less ignobly treated by several succeeding
generations as a hypocrite, a fanatic, or a tyrant; but now, thanks to
Carlyle, he is come to be regarded as one of the best and wisest rulers
that ever sat on the English throne (1599-1658). See "Cromwell's Letters
and Speeches," edited by Carlyle.


CROMWELL, RICHARD, son of the Protector; appointed to succeed him;
was unequal to the task, and compelled to abdicate, April 26, 1659;
retired into private life; went after the Restoration for a time abroad;
returned under a feigned name, and lived and died at Cheshunt
(1626-1712).


CROMWELL, THOMAS, minister of Henry VIII., and _malleus monachorum_,
the "mauler of the monks," born at Putney; the son of a blacksmith; led a
life of adventure for eight or nine years on the Continent; settled in
England about the beginning of Henry's reign; came under notice of
Wolsey, whose confidant he became, and subordinate agent in suppressing
the smaller monasteries; on his master's fall rose into favour with Henry
by suggesting he should discard the supremacy of the Pope, and assume the
supremacy of the Church himself; attained, in consequence, the highest
rank and authority in the State, for the proposal was adopted, with the
result that the Crown remains the head of ecclesiastical authority in
England to this day; the authority he thus acquired he employed in so
high-handed a fashion that he lost the favour of both king and people,
till on a sudden he was arrested on charges of treason, was condemned to
death, and beheaded on Tower Hill (1485-1540).


CRONSTADT (42), the port of St. Petersburg, at the mouth of the
Neva; a strongly fortified place, and the greatest naval station in the
country; it is absolutely impregnable.


CROOKES, WILLIAM, an eminent chemist and physicist, born in London;
distinguished for researches in both capacities; discovered the metal
thallium, and invented the radiometer; _b_. 1832.


CROSS, MRS., George Eliot's married name.


CROSS, SOUTHERN, a bright constellation in the southern hemisphere,
consisting of four stars.


CROSS, VICTORIA, a naval and military decoration instituted in 1854;
awarded for eminent personal valour in the face of the enemy.


CROSS FELL, one of the Pennine range of mountains in the N. of
England, 2892 ft., on the top of which five counties meet.


CROSSE, ANDREW, electrician, born at Somersetshire; made several
discoveries in the application of electricity; he was a zealous
scientist, and apt to be over-zealous (1784-1855).


CROSSRAGUEL, an abbey, now in ruins, 2 m. SW. of Maybole, Ayrshire,
where John Knox held disputation with the abbot, and of which in his
"History of the Reformation" he gives a humorous account (1562).


CROTCH, WILLIAM, musical composer of precocious gifts, and writer in
music, born in Norwich; became, in 1797, professor of Music in Oxford,
and in 1822 Principal of the Royal Academy; his anthems are well known
(1775-1847).


CROTONA, an ancient large and flourishing Greek city, Magna Graecia,
in Italy; the residence of the philosopher Pythagoras and the athlete
Milo.


CROWE, EYRE EVANS, historian and miscellaneous writer, born in
Hants; editor of the _Daily News_; author of the "History of France" and
"Lives of Eminent Foreign Statesmen" (1799-1868).


CROWE, SIR JAMES ARCHER, writer on art and a journalist, born in
London, son of the preceding; is associated with Cavalcaselle in several
works on art and famous artists; _b_. 1825.


CROWNE, JOHN, playwright, born in Nova Scotia, a contemporary and
rival of Dryden; supplied the stage with plays for nearly 30 years
(1640-1705).


CROWTHER, SAMUEL ADJAI, bishop of the Niger Territory; an African by
birth; was captured to be sold as a slave, but released by an English
cruiser; baptized a Christian in 1825; joined the first Niger Expedition
in 1841; sent out as a missionary in 1843; appointed bishop in 1864, the
duties of which he discharged faithfully, zealously, and well
(1810-1891).


CROYDON (103), the largest town in Surrey, on the Wandle, 10 m. SW.
of London Bridge, and practically now a suburb of London.


CRUDEN, ALEXANDER, author of a "Complete Concordance of the Holy
Scriptures," with which alone his name is now associated; born in
Aberdeen; intended for the Church, but from unsteadiness of intellect
not qualified to enter it; was placed frequently in restraint; appears to
have been a good deal employed as a press corrector; gave himself out as
"Alexander the Corrector," commissioned to correct moral abuses
(1701-1770).


CRUIKSHANK, GEORGE, a richly gifted English artist, born in London,
of Scotch descent; the first exhibition of his talent was in the
illustration of books for children, but it was in the line of humorous
satire he chiefly distinguished himself; and he first found scope for his
gifts in this direction in the political squibs of William Hone, a
faculty he exercised at length over a wide area; the works illustrated by
him include, among hundreds of others, "Grimm's Stories," "Peter
Schlemihl," Scott's "Demonology," Dickens's "Oliver Twist," and
Ainsworth's "Jack Shepherd"; like Hogarth, he was a moralist as well as
an artist, and as a total abstainer he consecrated his art at length to
dramatise the fearful downward career of the drunkard; his greatest work,
done in oil, is in the National Gallery, the "Worship of Bacchus," which
is a vigorous protestation against this vice (1792-1878).


CRUSADES, THE, military expeditions, organised from the 11th century
to the 13th, under the banner of the Cross for the recovery of the Holy
Land from the hands of the Saracens, to the number of eight. _The First_
(1096-1099), preached by Peter the Hermit, and sanctioned by the Council
of Clermont (1095), consisted of two divisions: one, broken into two
hordes, under Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless respectively,
arrived decimated in Syria, and was cut to pieces at Nicaea by the sultan;
while the other, better equipped and more efficiently organised, laid
siege to and captured in succession Nicaea, Antioch, and Jerusalem, where
Godfrey of Bouillon was proclaimed king. _The Second_ (1147-1149),
preached by St. Bernard, consisting of two armies under Conrad III. of
Germany and Louis VII. of France, laid siege in a shattered state to
Damascus, and was compelled to raise the siege and return a mere remnant
to Europe. _The Third_ (1189-1193), preached by William, archbishop of
Tyre, and provoked by Saladin's capture of Jerusalem, of which one
division was headed by Barbarossa, who, after taking Iconium, was drowned
while bathing in the Orontes, and the other, headed by Philippe Augustus
and Richard Coeur de Lion, who jointly captured Acre and made peace with
Saladin. _The Fourth_ (1202-1204), under sanction of Pope Innocent III.,
and undertaken by Baldwin, count of Flanders, having got the length of
Venice, was preparing to start for Asia, when it was called aside to
Constantinople to restore the emperor to his throne, when, upon his death
immediately afterwards, the Crusaders elected Baldwin in his place,
pillaged the city, and left, having added it to the domain of the Pope.
_The Fifth_ (1217-1221), on the part of John of Brienne, king of
Jerusalem, and Andrew II., king of Hungary, who made a raid upon Egypt
against the Saracens there, but without any result. _The Sixth_
(1228-1229), under conduct of Frederick II. of Germany, as heir through
John of Brienne to the throne of Jerusalem, who made a treaty with the
sultan of Egypt, whereby the holy city, with the exception of the Mosque
of Omar, was made over to him as king of Jerusalem. _The Seventh_
(1248-1254), conducted by St. Louis in the fulfilment of a vow, in which
Louis was defeated and taken prisoner, and only recovered his liberty by
payment of a heavy ransom. _The Eighth_ (1270), also undertaken by St.
Louis, who lay dying at Tunis as the towns of Palestine fell one after
another into the hands of the Saracens. The Crusades terminated with the
fall of Ptolemais in 1291.


CRUSOE, ROBINSON, the hero of Defoe's fiction of the name, a
shipwrecked sailor who spent years on an uninhabited island, and is
credited with no end of original devices in providing for his wants. See
SELKIRK.


CSOMA DE KOeROeS, ALEXANDER, a Hungarian traveller and philologist,
born in Koeroes, Transylvania; in the hope of tracing the origin of the
Magyar race, set out for the East in 1820, and after much hardship by the
way arrived in Thibet, where, under great privations, though aided by the
English Government, he devoted himself to the study of the Thibetan
language; in 1831 settled in Calcutta, where he compiled his Thibetan
Grammar and Dictionary, and catalogued the Thibetan works in the library
of the Asiatic Society; died at Darjeeling just as he was setting out for
fresh discoveries (1784-1836).


CTESIAS, Greek physician and historian of Persia; was present with
Artaxerxes Mnemon at the battle of Cunaxa, 401 B.C., and stayed
afterwards at the Persian court, where he got the materials for his
history, of which only a few fragments are extant.


CTESIPHON, an Athenian who, having proposed that the city should
confer a crown of gold on Demosthenes, was accused by AEschines of
violating the law in so doing, but was acquitted after an eloquent
oration by Demosthenes in his defence.


CUBA (1,500), the largest of the West India Islands, 700 m. long and
from 27 m. to 290 m. in breadth; belonged to Spain, but is now under the
protection of the United States; is traversed from E. to W. by a range of
mountains wooded to the summit; abounds in forests--ebony, cedar,
mahogany, &c.; soil very fertile; exports sugar and tobacco; principal
town, Havana.


CUBBIT, SIR WILLIAM, an eminent English engineer, born in Norfolk;
more or less employed in most of the great engineering undertakings of
his time (1785-1861).


CUDWORTH, RALPH, an eminent English divine and philosopher, born in
Somerset; his chief work, a vast and discursive one, and to which he owes
his fame, "The True Intellectual System of the Universe," in which he
teaches a philosophy of the Platonic type, which ascribes more to the
abiding inner than the fugitive outer of things; he defends revealed
religion on grounds of reason against both the atheist and the
materialist; his candour and liberality exposed him to much
misconstruction, and on that account was deemed a latitudinarian. "He
stands high among our early philosophers for his style, which, if not
exactly elegant and never splendid, is solid and clear" (1617-1688).


CUENCA, a fine old city in Spain, 83 m. E. of Madrid; also a
high-lying city of Ecuador, over 100 m. S. of Quito, with a delightful
climate; both in provinces of the same name.


CUJAS, or CUJACIUS, a celebrated French jurist, born at
Toulouse; devoted to the study of Roman law in its historical
development, and the true founder of the Historical school in that
department (1522-1590).


CULDEES, fraternities of uncertain origin and character scattered up
and down Ireland, and especially Scotland, hardly at all in England, from
the 9th or 10th to the 14th century; instituted, as would appear, to keep
alive a religious spirit among themselves and disseminate it among their
neighbours, until on the establishment of monastic orders in the country
they ceased to have a separate existence and lost their individuality in
the new communities, as well as their original character; they appear to
have been originally, whatever they became at length, something like
those fraternities we find later on at Deventer, in Holland, with which
Thomas a Kempis was connected, only whereas the former sought to plant
Christianity, the latter sought to purify it. The name disappears after
1332, but traces of them are found at Dunkeld, St. Andrews, Brechin, and
elsewhere in Scotland; in Ireland they continued in Armagh to the
Reformation, and were resuscitated for a few years in the 17th century.


CULLEN, PAUL, Cardinal, Catholic primate of Ireland, born in
Kildare; was an extreme Ultramontanist; vigorously opposed all secret
societies in the country with revolutionary aims, as well as the system
of mixed education then in force (1803-1878).


CULLEN, WILLIAM, physician, born at Hamilton; studied in Glasgow;
held successively the chairs of Chemistry, the Institutes of Medicine,
and Medicine in Edinburgh University; author of several medical works;
did much to advance the science of medicine; the celebrated Dr. Black was
one of his pupils in chemistry (1710-1790).


CULLODEN, a moor, 5 m. NE. of Inverness, where the Duke of
Cumberland defeated Prince Charles in 1746, and finally wrecked the
Stuart cause in the country.


CULPEPER, NICHOLAS, a herbalist, born in London, who practised
medicine and associated therewith the art of the astrologer as well as
the faith of a Puritan; was a character and a phenomenon of his time
(1616-1654).


CULVERWEL, NATHANIEL, an English author, born in Middlesex; educated
at Cambridge, and one of the Platonist school there; wrote "Light of
Nature," "Spiritual Optics," "Worth of Souls," &c., works which evince
vigour of thinking as well as literary power (1633-1651).


CUMAE, a considerable maritime city of Campania, now in ruins;
alleged to be the earliest Greek settlement in Italy; famous as the
residence of the SIBYL (q. v.), and a place of luxurious resort
for wealthy Romans.


CUMBERLAND (250), a county in N. of England, of mountain and dale,
with good agricultural and pasture land, and a rich coal-field on the
coast, as well as other minerals in the interior.


CUMBERLAND, DR. RICHARD, bishop of Peterborough, born in London,
educated at Cambridge, wrote several works, the chief "An Inquiry into
the Laws of Nature," in reply to Hobbes, in which he elevates the
tendency to produce happiness into something like a moral principle;
wrought hard, lived to a great age, and is credited with the saying,
"Better wear out than rust out" (1631-1718).


CUMBERLAND, RICHARD, dramatist, great-grandson of the preceding; was
a prolific writer for the stage; the play "The West Indian," which
established his reputation, was his best (1732-1811).


CUMBERLAND, WILLIAM AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF, second son of George II., was
defeated at Fontenoy by the French in 1745; defeated the Pretender next
year at Culloden; earned the title of "The Butcher" by his cruelties
afterwards; was beaten in all his battles except this one (1721-1765).


CUMBRIA, a country of the Northern Britons which, in the 6th
century, extended from the Clyde to the Dee, in Cheshire.


CUMMING, GORDON, the African lion-hunter, of Celtic origin; served
for a time in the army; wrote an account of his hunting exploits in his
"Five Years of a Hunter's Life" (1820-1866).


CUMMING, JOHN, a Scotch clergyman, popular in London, born at
Fintray, in Aberdeenshire; of a highly combative turn, and rather
foolhardy in his interpretations of prophecy (1807-1881).


CUNARD, SIR SAMUEL, founder of Cunard Line of Steamships, born in
Halifax, Nova Scotia (1787-1865).


CUNAXA, a town in Babylonia, on the Euphrates, 60 m. N. of Babylon.


CUNCTATOR, a name given to Fabius Maximus on account of the
tantalising tactics he adopted to wear out his adversary Hannibal.


CUNE`IFORM, an epithet applied to the wedge-shaped characters in
which the Assyrian and other ancient monumental inscriptions are written.


CUNNINGHAM, ALLAN, poet and man of letters, born in the parish of
Keir, Dumfriesshire; bred to the mason craft, but devoted his leisure
hours to study and the composition of Scottish ballads, which, when
published, gained him the notice of Sir Walter Scott; in 1810 he went to
London, where he wrote for periodicals, and obtained employment as
assistant to Chantrey the sculptor, in which post he found leisure to
cultivate his literary proclivities, collating and editing tales and
songs, editing Burns with a Life, and writing the Lives of famous
artists, and died in London; "a pliant, _Naturmensch_," Carlyle found him
to be, "with no principles or _creed_ that he could see, but excellent
old _habits_ of character" (1784-1842).


CUNNINGHAM, PETER, son of the preceding, author of the "Life of
Drummond of Hawthornden," "Handbook of London," &c. (1816-1867).


CUNNINGHAM, WILLIAM, a Scotch divine, born in Hamilton, well read in
the Reformation and Puritan theology, a vigorous defender of Scottish
orthodoxy, and a stanch upholder of the independence of the Church of
State control; was a powerful debater, and a host in any controversy in
which he embarked (1805-1861).


CUPID, or AMOR, the god of love, viewed as a chubby little boy,
armed with bow and arrows, and often with eyes bandaged.


CUPID AND PSYCHE, an allegorical representation of the trials of the
soul on its way to the perfection of bliss, being an episode in the
"Golden Ass" of Apuleius. See PSYCHE.


CURACA`O (26), one of Antilles, in the West Indies, belonging to the
Dutch, 36 m. long by about 8 broad; yields, along with other West Indian
products, an orange from the peel of which a liqueur is made in Holland.


CURE OF MEUDON, Rabelais.


CURE`TES, priests of Cybele, in Crete, whose rites were celebrated
with clashing of cymbals.


CURETON, WILLIAM, Syriac scholar, born in Shropshire,
assistant-keeper of MSS. at the British Museum; applied himself to the
study and collation of Syriac MSS., and discovered, among other relics, a
version of the Epistle of Ignatius; was appointed canon of Westminster
(1808-1864).


CURIATII, three Alban brothers who fought with the three Horatii
Roman brothers, and were beaten, to the subjection of Alba to Rome.


CURLE, EDMUND, a London bookseller, notorious for the issue of
libellous and of obscene publications, and for prosecutions he was
subjected to in consequence (1675-1747).


CURLING, a Scottish game played between rival clubs, belonging
generally to different districts, by means of cheese-shaped stones hurled
along smooth ice, the rules of which are pretty much the same as those in
bowling.


CURRAN, JOHN PHILPOT, an Irish orator and wit, born in co. Cork;
became member of Parliament in 1784; though a Protestant, employed all
his eloquence to oppose the policy of the Government towards Ireland,
together with the Union; retired on the death of Pitt; was Master of the
Rolls for a time; was Irish to the core (1750-1817).


CURRIE, JAMES, a Liverpool physician, born in Kirkpatrick-Fleming,
Dumfriesshire; was the earliest biographer and editor of Burns, in 4
vols., a work he undertook for behoof of his widow and family, and which
realised L1400, involved no small labour, was done _con amore_, and done
well (1756-1805).


CURRIE, SIR PHILIP, her Majesty's ambassador at Constantinople since
1893; has been connected with the Foreign Office since 1854; had been
attache at St. Petersburg, and was secretary to Lord Salisbury; _b_.
1834.


CURTIS, GEORGE WILLIAM, an American writer, born in Rhode Island,
distinguished as contributor or editor in connection with several
American journals and magazines; _b_. 1824.


CURTIUS, a noble youth of Roman legend who leapt on horseback
full-armed into a chasm in the Forum, which the soothsayers declared
would not close unless at the sacrifice of what Rome held dearest, and
which he did, judging that the wealth of Rome lay in its citizens, and
tradition says the chasm thereupon immediately closed.


CURTIUS, ERNST, a German archaeologist and philosopher, born at
Luebeck; travelled in Greece and Asia Minor; contributed much by his
researches to the history of Greece, and of its legends and works of art;
his jubilee as a professor was celebrated in 1891, when he received the
congratulations of the Emperor William II., to whose father he at one
time had acted as tutor; _b_. 1814.


CURTIUS, GEORG, German philologist, born at Luebeck, brother of the
preceding; held professorial appointments in Prague, Kiel, and Berlin;
one of the best Greek scholars in Germany, and contributed largely to the
etymology and grammar of the Greek language (1820-1885).


CURTIUS, QUINTUS RUFUS, a Roman historian of uncertain date; wrote a
history of Alexander the Great in ten books, two of which have been lost,
the rest surviving in a very fragmentary state.


CURTMANTLE, a surname of Henry II., from a robe he wore shorter than
that of his predecessors.


CURULE CHAIR, a kind of ivory camp-stool, mounted on a chariot, on
which a Roman magistrate, if consul, praetor, censor, or chief edile, sat
as he was conveyed in state to the senate-house or some public function.


CURWEN, JOHN, an Independent clergyman, born in Yorkshire; the
founder of the Tonic Sol-fa system in music; from 1864 gave himself up to
the advocacy and advancement of his system (1816-1880).


CURZON, GEORGE NATHANIEL, LORD, English statesman, son of a
clergyman, educated at Eton and Oxford; became Fellow of All Souls;
became Under-Secretary for India in 1891; travelled in the East, and
wrote on Eastern topics, on which he became an authority; was appointed
Viceroy of India in 1899; _b_. 1859.


CUSHING, an American jurist and diplomatist (1800-1879).


CUSHMAN, CHARLOTTE, an American actress, born in Boston;
represented, among other characters, Lady Macbeth, Rosalind, Meg
Merilees, and Romeo (1810-1876).


CUSTINE, COUNT DE, a French general, born at Metz; seized and
occupied Mayence, 1792; was forced out of it by the Prussians and obliged
to retreat; was called to account and sent to the guillotine;
"unsuccessfulness," his crime; "had fought in America; was a proud, brave
man, and his fortune led him _hither_" (1746-1793)


CUeSTRIN, a strong little town, 68 or 70 m. E. of Berlin, where young
Frederick the Great was kept in close confinement by his father.


CUTCH, a native State in the Bombay Presidency, in the country
called Gujarat.


CUTCH, RANN OF, a salt-water morass between Gujarat and Scinde,
which becomes a lake during the SW. monsoon.


CUTHBERT, a monk of Jarrow, a disciple of Bede; was with him when he
died, and wrote in a letter a graphic and touching account of his death.


CUTHBERT, ST., born in Northumbria; originally a shepherd; saw a
vision in the night-watches of the soul of St. Aidan ascending to heaven,
which determined his destiny, and he became a monk; entered the monastery
of Melrose, and eventually became prior, but devoted most of his time to
mission-work in the surrounding districts; left Melrose to be prior of
Lindisfarne, but longing for an austerer life, he retired to, and led the
life of a hermit on, an island by himself; being persuaded to come back,
he acted as bishop of Lindisfarne, and continued to act as such for two
years, but his previous longings for solitude returned, and he went back
to a hermit life, to spend a short season, as it happened, in prayer and
meditation; when he died; what he did, and the memory of what he did,
left an imperishable impression for good in the whole N. of England and
the Scottish borders; his remains were conveyed to Lindisfarne, and ere
long to Durham (635-687).


CUTTACK (47), capital of a district in S. of Bengal, at the apex of
the delta formed by the Mahanuddy; noted for its gold and silver filigree
work.


CUVIER, GEORGES, a celebrated naturalist, born at Montebeliard, of
Huguenot ancestry; the creator of comparative anatomy and palaeontology;
was educated at Stuttgart, where he studied natural science; but the
observation of marine animals on the coast of Normandy, where he held a
tutorship, first led him to the systematic study of anatomy, and brought
him into correspondence with Geoffroy St. Hilaire and others, who invited
him to Paris, where he prosecuted his investigations, matured his views,
and became professor of Comparative Anatomy at the Jardin des Plantes, a
member of the French Institute, and Permanent Secretary of the Academy of
Sciences, and eventually a peer of France; his labours in the science to
which he devoted his life were immense, but he continued to the last a
determined opponent of the theory, then being broached and now in vogue,
of a common descent (1769-1832).


CUXHAVEN, a German watering-place at the mouth of the Elbe, on the
southern bank.


CUYP, ALBERT, a celebrated Dutch landscape-painter, son of Jacob
Cuyp, commonly called Old Cuyp, also a landscapist, born at Dort; painted
scenes from the banks of the Meuse and the Rhine; is now reckoned a rival
of Claude, though he was not so in his lifetime, his pictures selling now
for a high price; he has been praised for his sunlights, but these, along
with Claude's, have been pronounced depreciatively by Ruskin as
"colourless" (1605-1691).


CUZCO (20), a town in Peru, about 11,440 ft. above the sea-level,
the ancient capital of the Incas; still retains traces of its former
extent and greatness, the inhabitants reckoned as then numbering 200,000,
and the civilisation advanced.


CYBELE, a nature-goddess worshipped in Phrygia and W. Asia, whose
worship, like that of the nature divinities generally, was accompanied
with noisy, more or less licentious, revelry; identified by the Greeks
with RHEA (q. v.), their nature-goddess.


CYCLADES, islands belonging to Greece, on the East or the AEgean
Sea, so called as forming a circle round Delos, the most famous of the
group.


CYCLIC POETS, poets who after Homer's death caught the contagion of
his great poem and wrote continuations, additions, &c.


CYCLOPEAN WALLS, a name given to structures found in Greece, Asia
Minor, Italy, and Sicily, built of large masses of unhewn stone and
without cement, such as it is presumed a race of gigantic strength like
the Cyclops (3) must have reared.


CYCLOPS, a name given to three distinct classes of mythological
beings: (1) a set of one-eyed savage giants infesting the coasts of
Sicily and preying upon human flesh; (2) a set of Titans, also one-eyed,
belonging to the race of the gods, three in number, viz., Brontes,
Steropes, and Arges--three great elemental powers of nature, subjected by
and subject to Zeus; and (3) a people of Thrace, famed for their skill in
building.


CYMBELINE, a legendary British king, and the hero of Shakespeare's
romance play of the name.


CYNAEGIRUS, a brother of AEschylus; distinguished himself at Marathon;
is famed for his desperate attempt to seize a retreating ship.


CYNEWULF, a Saxon poet, flourished at the second half of the 8th
century; seems to have passed through two phases, first as a glad-hearted
child of nature, and then as a devout believer in Christ; at the former
stage wrote "Riddles" and "Ode to the West Wind," at the latter his
themes were the lives of Christ and certain Saints.


CYNICS, a sect of Greek philosophers, disciples of Antisthenes, who
was a disciple of Socrates, but carried away with him only part of
Socrates' teaching and enforced that as if it were the whole, dropped all
regard for humanity and the universal reason, and taught that "virtue lay
wholly in the avoidance of evil, and those desires and greeds that bind
us to enjoyments," so that his disciples were called the "Capuchins of
the Old World." These in time went further than their master, and
conceived a contempt for everything that was not self-derived; they
derived their name from the gymnasium in Athens, where their master
taught.


CYPRIAN, ST., one of the Fathers of the Church, born at Carthage,
about the year 200, converted to Christianity in 245; devoted himself
thereafter to the study of the Bible, with the help of Tertullian his
favourite author; became bishop of Carthage in 248; on the outbreak of
the Decian persecution had to flee for his life, ministering to his flock
the while by substitutes; on his return, after two years, he was involved
in the discussion about the reception of the lapsed; under the Valerian
persecution was banished; being recalled, he refused to sacrifice to the
gods, and suffered martyrdom in 258; he was a zealous bishop of the High
Church type, and the father of such, only on broader lines. Festival,
Sept. 16.


CYPRUS (21), a fertile, mountainous island in the Levant, capital
Nicosia (12); geographically connected with Asia, and the third largest
in the Mediterranean, being 140 m. long and 60 m. broad; government ceded
to Great Britain in 1878 by the Sultan, on condition of an annual
tribute; is a British colony under a colonial governor or High
Commissioner; is of considerable strategic importance to Britain; yields
cereals, wines, cotton, &c., and has 400 m. of good road, and a large
transit trade.


CYRENAICS, a sect of Greek philosophers, disciples of Aristippus,
who was a disciple of Socrates, but who broke away from his master by
divorcing virtue from happiness, and making "pleasure, moderated by
reason, the ultimate aim of life, and the supreme good."


CYRE`NE, a town and Greek colony in Africa, E. of Egypt, extensive
ruins of which still exist, and which was the capital of the State,
called Cyrenaica after it, and the birthland of several illustrious
Greeks.


CYRIL, ST., surnamed the PHILOSOPHER, along with his brother
Methodius, the "Apostle of the Slavs," born in Thessalonica; invented the
Slavonic alphabet, and, with his brother's help, translated the Bible
into the language of the Slavs; _d_. 868. Festival, March 9.


CYRIL OF ALEXANDRIA, ST., born at Alexandria, and bishop there; an
ecclesiastic of a violent, militant order; persecuted the Novatians,
expelled the Jews from Alexandria, quarrelled with the governor, excited
a fanaticism which led to the seizure and shameful murder of Hypatia; had
a lifelong controversy with Nestorius, and got him condemned by the
Council of Ephesus, while he himself was condemned by the Council at
Antioch (608), and both cast into prison; after release lived at peace
(376-444). Festival, Jan. 28.


CYRIL OF JERUSALEM, ST., patriarch of Jerusalem, elected 351, and a
Father of the Greek Church; in the Arian controversy then raging was a
Semi-Arian, and was persecuted by the strict Arians; joined the Nicene
party at the Council of Constantinople in 381; was an instructor in
church doctrine to the common people by his catechisms (315-386).
Festival, March 18.


CYROPAEDIA, a work by Xenophon, being an idealistic account of the
"education of Cyrus the Great."


CYRUS, surnamed the GREAT, or the ELDER, the founder of
the Persian empire; began his conquests by overthrowing his grandfather
Astyages, king of the Medes; subdued Croesus, king of Lydia; laid siege
to Babylon and took it, and finished by being master of all Western Asia;
was a prince of great energy and generosity, and left the nations he
subjected and rendered tributary free in the observances of their
religions and the maintenance of their institutions; this is the story of
the historians, but it has since been considerably modified by study of
the ancient monuments (560-529 B.C.).


CYRUS, surnamed the YOUNGER, second son of Darius II.;
conspired against his brother Artaxerxes Mnemon, was sentenced to death,
pardoned, and restored to his satrapy in Asia Minor; conspired anew,
raised a large army, including Greek mercenaries, marched against his
brother, and was slain at Cunaxa, of which last enterprise and its fate
an account is given in the "Anabasis" of Xenophon; _d_. 401 B.C.


CYTHERA, the ancient name of Cerigo; had a magnificent temple to
Venus, who was hence called Cytheraea.


CZARTORYSKI, a Polish prince, born at Warsaw; passed his early years
in England; studied at Edinburgh University; fought under Kosciusko
against the Russians, and was for some time a hostage in Russia; gained
favour at the Court there, and even a high post in the State; in 1830
threw himself into the revolutionary movement, and devoted all his
energies to the service of his country, becoming head of the government;
on the suppression of the revolution his estates were confiscated; he
escaped to Paris, and spent his old age there, dying at 90 (1770-1861).


CZECHS, a branch of the Slavonic family that in the later half of
the 6th century settled in Bohemia; have a language of their own, spoken
also in Moravia and part of Hungary.


CZERNO`WITZ (54), the capital of the Austrian province of Bukowina,
on the Pruth.


CZERNY, CHARLES, a musical composer and pianist, born at Vienna;
had Liszt and Thalberg for pupils (1791-1857).


CZERNY, GEORGE, leader of the Servians in their insurrection against
the Turks; assisted by Russia carried all before him; when that help was
withdrawn the Turks gained the advantage, and he had to flee; returning
after the independence of Servia was secured, he was murdered at the
instigation of Prince Milosch (1766-1817).